Endocrine Disorders INTRODUCTION Together with the nervous system, the endocrine system regulates and integrates the body’s metabolic activities. The endocrine system meets the nervous system at the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus,…

Renal and Urologic Disorders INTRODUCTION The kidneys are located retroperitoneally in the lumbar area, with the right kidney a little lower than the left because of the liver mass above…

Psychiatric Disorders INTRODUCTION In recent years, social, economic, and professional developments have dramatically changed the mental health field. For instance, community and professional organizations have established family advocacy programs, substance…

Gastrointestinal Disorders INTRODUCTION The GI tract, also known as the alimentary canal, is a long, hollow, musculomembranous tube consisting of glands and accessory organs (salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas)….

Hematologic Disorders INTRODUCTION Blood, one of the body’s major fluid tissues, continuously circulates through the heart and blood vessels, carrying vital elements to every part of the body. BLOOD BASICS…

Immune Disorders INTRODUCTION The environment contains thousands of pathogenic microorganisms—viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites. Ordinarily, we protect ourselves from infectious organisms and other harmful invaders through an elaborate network of…

Musculoskeletal Disorders INTRODUCTION A complex system of bones, muscles, ligaments, tendons, and other connective tissue, the musculoskeletal system gives the body its form and shape. It also protects vital organs,…

Hepatobiliary Disorders INTRODUCTION The liver is the largest internal organ in the body, weighing slightly more than 3 lb (1,200 to 1,600 g) in the average adult. It’s also one…

Neurologic Disorders INTRODUCTION The neurologic system, the body’s communications network, coordinates and organizes the functions of all body systems. This intricate network has three main divisions: central nervous system (CNS):…