Hematologic System
Hematologic System Blood, although a fluid, is one of the body’s major tissues. It continuously circulates through the heart and blood vessels, carrying vital elements to every part of the…
Metabolic and Nutritional Disorders
Metabolic and Nutritional Disorders INTRODUCTION Metabolism is the physiologic process that allows cells to transform food into energy and continually rebuild body cells. Metabolism has two phases: catabolism and anabolism….
Fluids and Electrolytes
Fluids and Electrolytes The body is mostly liquid — various electrolytes dissolved in water. Electrolytes are ions (electrically charged versions) of essential elements — predominantly sodium (Na+), chloride (Cl−), hydrogen…
Genetic Disorders
Genetic Disorders INTRODUCTION Genetic diseases result from single-gene (mendelian) alterations, chromosomal abnormalities, or multifactorial errors. Over 6,000 such abnormalities have been identified in humans, ranging from mild differences (as in…
Eye Disorders
Eye Disorders INTRODUCTION Vision, the most complex sense, has been the focus of significant medical and surgical innovations. Disorders that affect the eye can lead to vision loss or impairment;…
Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders
Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders INTRODUCTION Ear, nose, and throat disorders rarely prove fatal (except for those resulting from neoplasms, epiglottitis, and neck trauma), but they may cause serious social,…
Sexual Disorders
Sexual Disorders INTRODUCTION Sexuality is an integral human function that’s inevitably affected by many interrelated factors. Its expression reflects the interaction of the biological, psychological, and sociologic ingredients that affect…
Fundamentals of Pathophysiology
Fundamentals of Pathophysiology An understanding of pathophysiology requires a review of normal physiology—how the body functions day to day, minute to minute—at the levels of cells, tissues, and organs, and…
