The therapeutic use of aromatic substances, largely essential oils, which typically contain numerous chemical constituents, are extracted from plants.

Developed in the UK by Dr Edward Bach, who believed that physical disease was the result of being at odds with one’s spiritual purpose, i.e. negative states of mind induce illness. His approach to health focused only on the mental state of the patient. He identified 38 negative psychological states of mind (e.g. jealousy, guilt, hopelessness) and developed a remedy designed to be used for each of these emotional states. The Bach collection comprises 39 remedies, 38 of which originate from flowers/trees, and ‘Rescue Remedy’, a combination of five of the other 38 remedies. Flower remedies are extremely dilute preparations, but are not homoeopathic remedies.

Traditional herbalism had an historical basis, party based on the galenical model of the four ‘humours’ and the belief that an excess of any of the humours leads to disease. Today, treatment is aimed at ‘restoring balance’ and ‘strengthening bodily systems’. Herbalists aim to treat patients in a holistic way by selecting a herb or combination of herbs to treat a particular person and his/her unique set of symptoms. One of the principal tenets is that the whole plant extract, and not an isolated constituent, is responsible for the clinical effect. It is claimed that herbal constituents, and even combinations of herbs, work synergistically to achieve benefit and reduce the possibility of adverse effects.

The use of highly dilute, succussed substances to stimulate the body’s own healing activity (the ‘vital force’). One of the key principles is ‘like cures like’ – a substance which in large doses causes a set of symptoms in a healthy person can be used to treat such symptoms in an ill person, e.g. homoeopathic preparations of coffee (Coffea) are used to treat insomnia. Treatment is holistic – two patients with the same set of symptoms may be given different remedies depending on their personal characteristics, physical appearance, mental and emotional state, etc. Although there are several hypotheses, there is not yet a plausible explanation for the mechanism of action of homoeopathy. Furthermore, on balance, rigorous clinical trials do not show an effect for homoeopathy over that of placebo.

Nutraceuticals and food supplements are preparations of substances commonly found in the diet, such as fish oils, or occurring naturally in the body, e.g. co-enzyme Q₁₀. In the UK, many herbal products, e.g. garlic tablets, are sold as dietary/food supplements.

An ancient Chinese method of health care which coexists alongside orthodox medicine today. TCM includes a range of therapies, such as Chinese massage, but is best known for the practices of traditional Chinese acupuncture (see below) and traditional Chinese herbal medicine (CHM). The basic concepts of TCM (‘yin-yang’ and the ‘five elements’) apply to CHM. The fundamental principle of treatment is to restore ‘balance and harmony’. Medicinal substances are classified as having particular attributes, e.g. hot, cold, tonifying, moistening and it is the consideration and combining of these attributes during therapy that is thought to bring about balance to patterns of clinical dysfunction. For example, ‘cooling’ herbs would be used to treat a patient whose pattern of illness is described as ‘hot’. Usually, herbal formulae comprising around 4–12 different medicinal substances are used to treat specific clinical patterns. Substances used as part of traditional Chinese medicine may include animal as well as herbal material.

This involves insertion of needles into a specific point or set of points on the body for the treatment of specific conditions. Various forms exist, such as auriculoacupuncture (needling of specific points on the ear) and electroacupuncture (electrical stimulation of inserted needles). The two main types practised in the UK are described below.

Chiropractors believe that misaligned or maladjusted vertebrae (‘subluxations’), caused by accidents, strains, poor posture, innate skeletal distortions, etc., affect the spine and surrounding muscles, nerves and ligaments. This is believed to result in local or radiating pain, affecting joint movement, and causing swelling or weakening of muscle groups, thereby contributing to the disease process. There is, as yet, no clear explanation from current knowledge of spinal mechanics and neurophysiology how this might happen.

A transmission of ‘therapeutic energy’ between healer and patient, which may or may not be associated with particular religious beliefs. Can be performed at a distance (‘distant healing’) or by laying on of hands (‘therapeutic touch’).

Osteopaths believe that a wide variety of disorders can be traced to disorders of the musculoskeletal system, particularly the spinal vertebrae, but also to dysfunction in certain muscle groups. Manipulative techniques are used to correct these joint and tissue disturbances to restore normal bodily function. Osteopaths use a detailed medical history, physical examination, assessment of posture, observation of patient movement, etc. and, occasionally, X-rays in diagnosis. Direct techniques (soft tissue and joint movement, and high-velocity thrusts) and indirect techniques (positioning-type techniques where the joints are moved without force) are used in treatment. Generally osteopaths use more rhythmical and gentler pressure on the whole body, including the spine, whereas chiropractors tend to use more sharp, short, thrusting pressure on the spine.

A form of treatment and diagnosis which involves massage of specific points on the feet (mainly on the soles but also on the tops and sides – maps of the areas of the feet corresponding to different areas/organs of the body have been drawn up). It is based on the belief that there are reflexes in the feet for all parts of the body. Reflexologists claim to be able to identify sites of tenderness and ‘lumps’ or granules of crystalline material, which, in reflexology, are taken to represent remote organ disease. Manual stimulation of the reflex points is believed to break down the deposits so that they can be eliminated, and to increase the flow of ‘healing energy’ through ‘channels’. At present, these theories are unsubstantiated.

A philosophical vision of health and disease based on the work of Rudolf Steiner who explored how man’s soul and spiritual nature relate to the health and function of the body. Steiner viewed each person as having four ‘bodies’ or ‘forces’: physical, etheric, astral, spiritual. Practitioners of anthroposophy aim to understand illness in terms of how these four elements interact; the aim of treatment is to stimulate the natural healing forces of the body. The anthroposophic approach is a holistic one; practitioners may use a range of therapies including diet, therapeutic movement (eurhythmy) and artistic therapies as well as anthroposophic medicines in an integrated therapeutic programme. The medicines are derived mainly from plant and mineral sources; many are combinations of herbal ingredients. Particular attention is paid to the source and methods of farming used in growing raw plant materials for preparing anthroposophic medicines (e.g. organic culture only).

The traditional system of medicine of India. Its essence is to achieve and maintain balance between the ‘elements’ and ‘energies’; illness is believed to result from imbalance. Ayurvedic diagnosis is based on physical observation and questioning. Treatment usually involves Ayurvedic herbal remedies, as well as dietary modifications, meditation, exercise, massage. The medicines are herbal/mineral preparations; heavy metals (e.g. lead, arsenic) are sometimes used in the manufacturing process.