Regulation of body fluids
Water constitutes approximately 60% of the healthy human body, with the water in the intracellular and extracellular (interstitial fluid and blood plasma) compartments in osmotic equilibrium. Sodium and chloride ions…
Renal physiology: filtration and tubular function
Each nephron consists of a cup-shaped Bowman’s capsule surrounding the glomerulus, which then passes to the proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, with the distal convoluted tubule draining into…
Structure of the renal system
The renal system is involved in the removal of waste products, excess water and salts from the blood in the form of urine. It controls the level of water and…
Cardiovascular pathophysiology
Cardiovascular disease is the biggest killer in the Western world. Ischaemic heart disease is the leading cause of death in the UK, with stroke (after cancer) accounting for the third-highest…
Cardiac physiology
The purpose of the heart is for the left ventricle to pump blood around the systemic circulation to perfuse organs and tissues, and for the right ventricle to pump blood…
Gas transport
Every minute at rest the human body consumes about 200 mL of oxygen (O2) and produces about 200 mL of carbon dioxide (CO2). Oxygen Forms of oxygen carriage and haemoglobin…
Respiratory physiology
The respiratory system serves to ensure that all tissues receive the O2 they need and can dispose of the CO2 they produce. Lungs exchange gases with atmosphere via the nasal…
Structure of the respiratory system
The respiratory tract extends from the lips and nostrils to the alveoli of the lungs (Figure 23.1). It comprises a network of conducting and respiratory airways allowing air to pass…
