Upper Limb

7


Upper Limb




Conceptual overview


General description


The upper limb is associated with the lateral aspect of the lower portion of the neck and with the thoracic wall. It is suspended from the trunk by muscles and a small skeletal articulation between the clavicle and the sternum—the sternoclavicular joint. Based on the position of its major joints and component bones, the upper limb is divided into shoulder, arm, forearm, and hand (Fig. 7.1A).



The shoulder is the area of upper limb attachment to the trunk (Fig. 7.1B).


The arm is the part of the upper limb between the shoulder and the elbow joint; the forearm is between the elbow joint and the wrist joint; and the hand is distal to the wrist joint.


The axilla, cubital fossa, and carpal tunnel are significant areas of transition between the different parts of the limb (Fig. 7.2). Important structures pass through, or are related to, each of these areas.



The axilla is an irregularly shaped pyramidal area formed by muscles and bones of the shoulder and the lateral surface of the thoracic wall. The apex or inlet opens directly into the lower portion of the neck. The skin of the armpit forms the floor. All major structures that pass between the neck and arm pass through the axilla.


The cubital fossa is a triangularly shaped depression formed by muscles anterior to the elbow joint. The major artery, the brachial artery, passing from the arm to the forearm passes through this fossa, as does one of the major nerves of the upper limb, the median nerve.


The carpal tunnel is the gateway to the palm of the hand. Its posterior, lateral, and medial walls form an arch, which is made up of small carpal bones in the proximal region of the hand. A thick band of connective tissue, the flexor retinaculum, spans the distance between each side of the arch and forms the anterior wall of the tunnel. The median nerve and all the long flexor tendons passing from the forearm to the digits of the hand pass through the carpal tunnel.



Functions


Positioning the hand


Unlike the lower limb, which is used for support, stability, and locomotion, the upper limb is highly mobile for positioning the hand in space.


The shoulder is suspended from the trunk predominantly by muscles and can therefore be moved relative to the body. Sliding (protraction and retraction) and rotating the scapula on the thoracic wall changes the position of the glenohumeral joint (shoulder joint) and extends the reach of the hand (Fig. 7.3). The glenohumeral joint allows the arm to move around three axes with a wide range of motion. Movements of the arm at this joint are flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, medial rotation (internal rotation), lateral rotation (external rotation), and circumduction (Fig. 7.4).




The major movements at the elbow joint are flexion and extension of the forearm (Fig. 7.5A). At the other end of the forearm, the distal end of the lateral bone, the radius, can be flipped over the adjacent head of the medial bone, the ulna. Because the hand is articulated with the radius, it can be efficiently moved from a palm-anterior position to a palm-posterior position simply by crossing the distal end of the radius over the ulna (Fig. 7.5B). This movement, termed pronation, occurs solely in the forearm. Supination returns the hand to the anatomical position.



At the wrist joint, the hand can be abducted, adducted, flexed, extended, and circumducted (Fig. 7.6). These movements, combined with those of the shoulder, arm, and forearm, enable the hand to be placed in a wide range of positions relative to the body.






Component parts


Bones and joints


The bones of the shoulder consist of the scapula, clavicle, and proximal end of the humerus (Fig. 7.7).



The clavicle articulates medially with the manubrium of the sternum and laterally with the acromion of the scapula, which arches over the joint between the glenoid cavity of the scapula and the head of the humerus (the glenohumeral joint).


The humerus is the bone of the arm (Fig. 7.7). The distal end of the humerus articulates with the bones of the forearm at the elbow joint, which is a hinge joint that allows flexion and extension of the forearm.


The forearm contains two bones:



At the elbow joint, the proximal ends of the radius and ulna articulate with each other as well as with the humerus.


In addition to flexing and extending the forearm, the elbow joint allows the radius to spin on the humerus while sliding against the head of the ulna during pronation and supination of the hand.


The distal portions of the radius and the ulna also articulate with each other. This joint allows the end of the radius to flip from the lateral side to the medial side of the ulna during pronation of the hand.


The wrist joint is formed between the radius and carpal bones of the hand and between an articular disc, distal to the ulna, and carpal bones.


The bones of the hand consist of the carpal bones, the metacarpals, and the phalanges (Fig. 7.7).


The five digits in the hand are the thumb and the index, middle, ring, and little fingers.


Joints between the eight small carpal bones allow only limited amounts of movement; as a result, the bones work together as a unit.


The five metacarpals, one for each digit, are the primary skeletal foundation of the palm (Fig. 7.7).


The joint between the metacarpal of the thumb (metacarpal I) and one of the carpal bones allows greater mobility than the limited sliding movement that occurs at the carpometacarpal joints of the fingers.


Distally, the heads of metacarpals II to V (i.e., except that of the thumb) are interconnected by strong ligaments. Lack of this ligamentous connection between the metacarpal bones of the thumb and index finger together with the biaxial saddle joint between the metacarpal bone of the thumb and the carpus provide the thumb with greater freedom of movement than the other digits of the hand.


The bones of the digits are the phalanges (Fig. 7.7). The thumb has two phalanges, while each of the other digits has three.


The metacarpophalangeal joints are biaxial condylar joints (ellipsoid joints) that allow abduction, adduction, flexion, extension, and circumduction (Fig. 7.8). Abduction and adduction of the fingers is defined in reference to an axis passing through the center of the middle finger in the anatomical position. The middle finger can therefore abduct both medially and laterally and adduct back to the central axis from either side. The interphalangeal joints are primarily hinge joints that allow only flexion and extension.




Muscles


Some muscles of the shoulder, such as the trapezius, levator scapulae, and rhomboids, connect the scapula and clavicle to the trunk. Other muscles connect the clavicle, scapula, and body wall to the proximal end of the humerus. These include the pectoralis major, pectoralis minor, latissimus dorsi, teres major, and deltoid (Fig. 7.9A,B). The most important of these muscles are the four rotator cuff muscles—the subscapularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and teres minor muscles—which connect the scapula to the humerus and provide support for the glenohumeral joint (Fig. 7.9C).



Muscles in the arm and forearm are separated into anterior (flexor) and posterior (extensor) compartments by layers of fascia, bones, and ligaments (Fig. 7.10).



The anterior compartment of the arm lies anteriorly in position and is separated from muscles of the posterior compartment by the humerus and by medial and lateral intermuscular septa. These intermuscular septa are continuous with the deep fascia enclosing the arm and attach to the sides of the humerus.


In the forearm, the anterior and posterior compartments are separated by a lateral intermuscular septum, the radius, the ulna, and an interosseous membrane, which joins adjacent sides of the radius and ulna (Fig. 7.10).


Muscles in the arm act mainly to move the forearm at the elbow joint, while those in the forearm function predominantly to move the hand at the wrist joint and the fingers and thumb.


Muscles found entirely in the hand, the intrinsic muscles, generate delicate movements of the digits of the hand and modify the forces produced by tendons coming into the fingers and thumb from the forearm. Included among the intrinsic muscles of the hand are three small thenar muscles, which form a soft tissue mound, called the thenar eminence, over the palmar aspect of metacarpal I. The thenar muscles allow the thumb to move freely relative to the other fingers.



Relationship to other regions


Neck


The upper limb is directly related to the neck. Lying on each side of the superior thoracic aperture at the base of the neck is an axillary inlet, which is formed by:



The major artery and vein of the upper limb pass between the thorax and the limb by passing over rib I and through the axillary inlet. Nerves, predominantly derived from the cervical portion of the spinal cord, also pass through the axillary inlet and the axilla to supply the upper limb.



Back and thoracic wall


Muscles that attach the bones of the shoulder to the trunk are associated with the back and the thoracic wall and include the trapezius, levator scapulae, rhomboid major, rhomboid minor, and latissimus dorsi (Fig. 7.12).



The breast on the anterior thoracic wall has a number of significant relationships with the axilla and upper limb. It overlies the pectoralis major muscle, which forms most of the anterior wall of the axilla and attaches the humerus to the chest wall (Fig. 7.13). Often, part of the breast known as the axillary process extends around the lateral margin of the pectoralis major into the axilla.



Lymphatic drainage from lateral and superior parts of the breast is predominantly into lymph nodes in the axilla. Several arteries and veins that supply or drain the gland also originate from, or drain into, major axillary vessels.



Key points


Innervation by cervical and upper thoracic nerves


Innervation of the upper limb is by the brachial plexus, which is formed by the anterior rami of cervical spinal nerves C5 to C8, and T1 (Fig. 7.14). This plexus is initially formed in the neck and then continues through the axillary inlet into the axilla. Major nerves that ultimately innervate the arm, forearm, and hand originate from the brachial plexus in the axilla.



As a consequence of this innervation pattern, clinical testing of lower cervical and T1 nerves is carried out by examining dermatomes, myotomes, and tendon reflexes in the upper limb. Another consequence is that the clinical signs of problems related to lower cervical nerves—pain; pins-and-needles sensations, or paresthesia; and muscle twitching—appear in the upper limb.


Dermatomes of the upper limb (Fig. 7.15A) are often tested for sensation. Areas where overlap of dermatomes is minimal include the:




Selected joint movements are used to test myotomes (Fig. 7.15B):



In an unconscious patient, both somatic sensory and motor functions of spinal cord levels can be tested using tendon reflexes:



The major spinal cord level associated with innervation of the diaphragm, C4, is immediately above the spinal cord levels associated with the upper limb.


Evaluation of dermatomes and myotomes in the upper limb can provide important information about potential breathing problems that might develop as complications of damage to the spinal cord in regions just below the C4 spinal level.


Each of the major muscle compartments in the arm and forearm and each of the intrinsic muscles of the hand is innervated predominantly by one of the major nerves that originate from the brachial plexus in the axilla (Fig. 7.16A):




In addition to innervating major muscle groups, each of the major peripheral nerves originating from the brachial plexus carries somatic sensory information from patches of skin quite different from dermatomes (Fig. 7.16B). Sensation in these areas can be used to test for peripheral nerve lesions:





Superficial veins


Large veins embedded in the superficial fascia of the upper limb are often used to access a patient’s vascular system and to withdraw blood. The most significant of these veins are the cephalic, basilic, and median cubital veins (Fig. 7.18).



The cephalic and basilic veins originate from the dorsal venous network on the back of the hand.


The cephalic vein originates over the anatomical snuffbox at the base of the thumb, passes laterally around the distal forearm to reach the anterolateral surface of the limb, and then continues proximally. It crosses the elbow, then passes up the arm into a triangular depression—the clavipectoral triangle (deltopectoral triangle)—between the pectoralis major muscle, deltoid muscle, and clavicle. In this depression, the vein passes into the axilla by penetrating deep fascia just inferior to the clavicle.


The basilic vein originates from the medial side of the dorsal venous network of the hand and passes proximally up the posteromedial surface of the forearm. It passes onto the anterior surface of the limb just inferior to the elbow and then continues proximally to penetrate deep fascia about midway up the arm.


At the elbow, the cephalic and basilic veins are connected by the median cubital vein, which crosses the roof of the cubital fossa.




Regional anatomy


Shoulder


The shoulder is the region of upper limb attachment to the trunk.


The bone framework of the shoulder consists of:



The superficial muscles of the shoulder consist of the trapezius and deltoid muscles, which together form the smooth muscular contour over the lateral part of the shoulder. These muscles connect the scapula and clavicle to the trunk and to the arm, respectively.



Bones



Clavicle

The clavicle is the only bony attachment between the trunk and the upper limb. It is palpable along its entire length and has a gentle S-shaped contour, with the forward-facing convex part medial and the forward-facing concave part lateral. The acromial (lateral) end of the clavicle is flat, whereas the sternal (medial) end is more robust and somewhat quadrangular in shape (Fig. 7.20).



The acromial end of the clavicle has a small oval facet on its surface for articulation with a similar facet on the medial surface of the acromion of the scapula.


The sternal end has a much larger facet for articulation mainly with the manubrium of the sternum, and to a lesser extent, with the first costal cartilage.


The inferior surface of the lateral third of the clavicle possesses a distinct tuberosity consisting of a tubercle (the conoid tubercle) and lateral roughening (the trapezoid line), for attachment of the important coracoclavicular ligament.


In addition, the surfaces and margins of the clavicle are roughened by the attachment of muscles that connect the clavicle to the thorax, neck, and upper limb. The superior surface is smoother than the inferior surface.



Scapula

The scapula is a large, flat triangular bone with:



The lateral angle of the scapula is marked by a shallow, somewhat comma-shaped glenoid cavity, which articulates with the head of the humerus to form the glenohumeral joint (Fig. 7.21B,C).


A large triangular-shaped roughening (the infraglenoid tubercle) inferior to the glenoid cavity is the site of attachment for the long head of the triceps brachii muscle.


A less distinct supraglenoid tubercle is located superior to the glenoid cavity and is the site of attachment for the long head of the biceps brachii muscle.


A prominent spine subdivides the posterior surface of the scapula into a small, superior supraspinous fossa and a much larger, inferior infraspinous fossa (Fig. 7.21A).


The acromion, which is an anterolateral projection of the spine, arches over the glenohumeral joint and articulates, via a small oval facet on its distal end, with the clavicle.


The region between the lateral angle of the scapula and the attachment of the spine to the posterior surface of the scapula is the greater scapular notch (spinoglenoid notch).


Unlike the posterior surface, the costal surface of the scapula is unremarkable, being characterized by a shallow concave subscapular fossa over much of its extent (Fig. 7.21B). The costal surface and margins provide for muscle attachment, and the costal surface, together with its related muscle (subscapularis), moves freely over the underlying thoracic wall.


The lateral border of the scapula is strong and thick for muscle attachment, whereas the medial border and much of the superior border is thin and sharp.


The superior border is marked on its lateral end by:



The spine and acromion can be readily palpated on a patient, as can the tip of the coracoid process, the inferior angle, and much of the medial border of the scapula.



Proximal humerus

The proximal end of the humerus consists of the head, the anatomical neck, the greater and lesser tubercles, the surgical neck, and the superior half of the shaft of the humerus (Fig. 7.22).



The head is half-spherical in shape and projects medially and somewhat superiorly to articulate with the much smaller glenoid cavity of the scapula.


The anatomical neck is very short and is formed by a narrow constriction immediately distal to the head. It lies between the head and the greater and lesser tubercles laterally, and between the head and the shaft more medially.



Greater and lesser tubercles

The greater and lesser tubercles are prominent landmarks on the proximal end of the humerus and serve as attachment sites for the four rotator cuff muscles of the glenohumeral joint.


The greater tubercle is lateral in position. Its superior surface and posterior surface are marked by three large smooth facets for muscle tendon attachments:



The lesser tubercle is anterior in position and its surface is marked by a large smooth impression for attachment of the subscapularis muscle.


A deep intertubercular sulcus (bicipital groove) separates the lesser and greater tubercles and continues inferiorly onto the proximal shaft of the humerus (Fig. 7.22). The tendon of the long head of the biceps brachii passes through this sulcus.


Roughenings on the lateral and medial lips and on the floor of the intertubercular sulcus mark sites for the attachment of the pectoralis major, teres major, and latissimus dorsi muscles, respectively.


The lateral lip of the intertubercular sulcus is continuous inferiorly with a large V-shaped deltoid tuberosity on the lateral surface of the humerus midway along its length (Fig. 7.22), which is where the deltoid muscle inserts onto the humerus.


In approximately the same position, but on the medial surface of the bone, there is a thin vertical roughening for attachment of the coracobrachialis muscle.



Surgical neck

One of the most important features of the proximal end of the humerus is the surgical neck (Fig. 7.22). This region is oriented in the horizontal plane between the expanded proximal part of the humerus (head, anatomical neck, and tubercles) and the narrower shaft. The axillary nerve and the posterior circumflex humeral artery, which pass into the deltoid region from the axilla, do so immediately posterior to the surgical neck. Because the surgical neck is weaker than more proximal regions of the bone, it is one of the sites where the humerus commonly fractures. The associated nerve (axillary) and artery (posterior circumflex humeral) can be damaged by fractures in this region.




Joints


The three joints in the shoulder complex are the sternoclavicular, acromioclavicular, and glenohumeral joints.


The sternoclavicular joint and the acromioclavicular joint link the two bones of the pectoral girdle to each other and to the trunk. The combined movements at these two joints enable the scapula to be positioned over a wide range on the thoracic wall, substantially increasing “reach” by the upper limb.


The glenohumeral joint (shoulder joint) is the articulation between the humerus of the arm and the scapula.



Sternoclavicular joint

The sternoclavicular joint occurs between the proximal end of the clavicle and the clavicular notch of the manubrium of the sternum together with a small part of the first costal cartilage (Fig. 7.23). It is synovial and saddle shaped. The articular cavity is completely separated into two compartments by an articular disc. The sternoclavicular joint allows movement of the clavicle, predominantly in the anteroposterior and vertical planes, although some rotation also occurs.



The sternoclavicular joint is surrounded by a joint capsule and is reinforced by four ligaments:




Acromioclavicular joint

The acromioclavicular joint is a small synovial joint between an oval facet on the medial surface of the acromion and a similar facet on the acromial end of the clavicle (Fig. 7.24, also see Fig. 7.31). It allows movement in the anteroposterior and vertical planes together with some axial rotation.



The acromioclavicular joint is surrounded by a joint capsule and is reinforced by:




Glenohumeral joint

The glenohumeral joint is a synovial ball and socket articulation between the head of the humerus and the glenoid cavity of the scapula (Fig. 7.25). It is multiaxial with a wide range of movements provided at the cost of skeletal stability. Joint stability is provided, instead, by the rotator cuff muscles, the long head of the biceps brachii muscle, related bony processes, and extracapsular ligaments. Movements at the joint include flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, medial rotation, lateral rotation, and circumduction.



The articular surfaces of the glenohumeral joint are the large spherical head of the humerus and the small glenoid cavity of the scapula (Fig. 7.25). Each of the surfaces is covered by hyaline cartilage.


The glenoid cavity is deepened and expanded peripherally by a fibrocartilaginous collar (the glenoid labrum), which attaches to the margin of the fossa. Superiorly, this labrum is continuous with the tendon of the long head of the biceps brachii muscle, which attaches to the supraglenoid tubercle and passes through the articular cavity superior to the head of the humerus.


The synovial membrane attaches to the margins of the articular surfaces and lines the fibrous membrane of the joint capsule (Fig. 7.26). The synovial membrane is loose inferiorly. This redundant region of synovial membrane and related fibrous membrane accommodates abduction of the arm.



The synovial membrane protrudes through apertures in the fibrous membrane to form bursae, which lie between the tendons of surrounding muscles and the fibrous membrane. The most consistent of these is the subtendinous bursa of the subscapularis, which lies between the subscapularis muscle and the fibrous membrane. The synovial membrane also folds around the tendon of the long head of the biceps brachii muscle in the joint and extends along the tendon as it passes into the intertubercular sulcus. All these synovial structures reduce friction between the tendons and adjacent joint capsule and bone.


In addition to bursae that communicate with the articular cavity through apertures in the fibrous membrane, other bursae are associated with the joint but are not connected to it. These occur:



The fibrous membrane of the joint capsule attaches to the margin of the glenoid cavity, outside the attachment of the glenoid labrum and the long head of the biceps brachii muscle, and to the anatomical neck of the humerus (Fig. 7.27).



On the humerus, the medial attachment occurs more inferiorly than the neck and extends onto the shaft. In this region, the fibrous membrane is also loose or folded in the anatomical position. This redundant area of the fibrous membrane accommodates abduction of the arm.


Openings in the fibrous membrane provide continuity of the articular cavity with bursae that occur between the joint capsule and surrounding muscles and around the tendon of the long head of the biceps brachii muscle in the intertubercular sulcus.


The fibrous membrane of the joint capsule is thickened:



Joint stability is provided by surrounding muscle tendons and a skeletal arch formed superiorly by the coracoid process and acromion and the coraco-acromial ligament (Fig. 7.28).



Tendons of the rotator cuff muscles (the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis muscles) blend with the joint capsule and form a musculotendinous collar that surrounds the posterior, superior, and anterior aspects of the glenohumeral joint (Figs. 7.28 and 7.29). This cuff of muscles stabilizes and holds the head of the humerus in the glenoid cavity of the scapula without compromising the arm’s flexibility and range of motion. The tendon of the long head of the biceps brachii muscle passes superiorly through the joint and restricts upward movement of the humeral head on the glenoid cavity.



Vascular supply to the glenohumeral joint is predominantly through branches of the anterior and posterior circumflex humeral and suprascapular arteries.


The glenohumeral joint is innervated by branches from the posterior cord of the brachial plexus, and from the suprascapular, axillary, and lateral pectoral nerves.



In the clinic


Fractures of the clavicle and dislocations of the acromioclavicular and sternoclavicular joints


The clavicle provides osseous continuity between the upper limb and thorax. Given its relative size and the potential forces that it transmits from the upper limb to the trunk, it is not surprising that it is often fractured. The typical site of fracture is the middle third (Fig. 7.30). The medial and lateral thirds are rarely fractured.



The acromial end of the clavicle tends to dislocate at the acromioclavicular joint with trauma (Fig. 7.31). The outer third of the clavicle is joined to the scapula by the conoid and trapezoid ligaments of the coracoclavicular ligament.



A minor injury tends to tear the fibrous joint capsule and ligaments of the acromioclavicular joint, resulting in acromioclavicular separation on a plain radiograph. More severe trauma will disrupt the conoid and trapezoid ligaments of the coracoclavicular ligament, which results in elevation and upward subluxation of the clavicle.


The typical injury at the medial end of the clavicle is an anterior or posterior dislocation of the sternoclavicular joint. Importantly, a posterior dislocation of the clavicle may impinge on the great vessels in the root of the neck and compress or disrupt them.



In the clinic


Dislocations of the glenohumeral joint


The glenohumeral joint is extremely mobile, providing a wide range of movement at the expense of stability. The relatively small bony glenoid cavity, supplemented by the less robust fibrocartilaginous glenoid labrum and the ligamentous support, make it susceptible to dislocation.


Anterior dislocation (Fig. 7.32) occurs most frequently and is usually associated with an isolated traumatic incident (clinically, all anterior dislocations are anteroinferior). In some cases, the anteroinferior glenoid labrum is torn with or without a small bony fragment. Once the joint capsule and cartilage are disrupted, the joint is susceptible to further (recurrent) dislocations. When an anteroinferior dislocation occurs, the axillary nerve may be injured by direct compression of the humeral head on the nerve inferiorly as it passes through the quadrangular space. Furthermore, the “lengthening” effect of the humerus may stretch the radial nerve, which is tightly bound within the radial groove, and produce a radial nerve paralysis. Occasionally, an anteroinferior dislocation is associated with a fracture, which may require surgical reduction.



Posterior dislocation is extremely rare; when seen, the clinician should focus on its cause, the most common being extremely vigorous muscle contractions, which may be associated with an epileptic seizure caused by electrocution.





Muscles


The two most superficial muscles of the shoulder are the trapezius and deltoid muscles (Fig. 7.35 and Table 7.1). Together, they provide the characteristic contour of the shoulder:



Table 7.1


Muscles of the shoulder (spinal segments in bold are the major segments innervating the muscle)









































Muscle Origin Insertion Innervation Function
Trapezius Superior nuchal line, external occipital protuberance, medial margin of the ligamentum nuchae, spinous processes of CVII to TXII and the related supraspinous ligaments Superior edge of the crest of the spine of the scapula, acromion, posterior border of lateral one-third of clavicle Motor spinal part of accessory nerve (XI). Sensory (proprioception) anterior rami of C3 and C4 Powerful elevator of the scapula; rotates the scapula during abduction of humerus above horizontal; middle fibers retract scapula; lower fibers depress scapula
Deltoid Inferior edge of the crest of the spine of the scapula, lateral margin of the acromion, anterior border of lateral one-third of clavicle Deltoid tuberosity of humerus Axillary nerve (C5, C6) Major abductor of arm (abducts arm beyond initial 15° done by supraspinatus); clavicular fibers assist in flexing the arm; posterior fibers assist in extending the arm
Levator scapulae Transverse processes of CI and CII vertebrae and posterior tubercles of transverse processes of CIII and CIV vertebrae Posterior surface of medial border of scapula from superior angle to root of spine of the scapula Branches directly from anterior rami of C3 and C4 spinal nerves and by branches (C5) from the dorsal scapular nerve Elevates the scapula
Rhomboid minor Lower end of ligamentum nuchae and spinous processes of CVII and TI vertebrae Posterior surface of medial border of scapula at the root of the spine of the scapula Dorsal scapular nerve (C4, C5) Elevates and retracts the scapula
Rhomboid major Spinous processes of TII–TV vertebrae and intervening supraspinous ligaments Posterior surface of medial border of scapula from the root of the spine of the scapula to the inferior angle Dorsal scapular nerve (C4, C5) Elevates and retracts the scapula


image




Both the trapezius and deltoid are attached to opposing surfaces and margins of the spine of the scapula, acromion, and clavicle. The scapula, acromion, and clavicle can be palpated between the attachments of the trapezius and deltoid.


Deep to the trapezius the scapula is attached to the vertebral column by three muscles—the levator scapulae, rhomboid minor, and rhomboid major. These three muscles work with the trapezius (and with muscles found anteriorly) to position the scapula on the trunk.



Trapezius

The trapezius muscle has an extensive origin from the axial skeleton, which includes sites on the skull and the vertebrae, from CI to TXII (Fig. 7.36). From CI to CVII, the muscle attaches to the vertebrae through the ligamentum nuchae. The muscle inserts onto the skeletal framework of the shoulder along the inner margins of a continuous U-shaped line of attachment oriented in the horizontal plane, with the bottom of the U directed laterally. Together, the left and right trapezius muscles form a diamond or trapezoid shape, from which the name is derived.


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Jun 13, 2016 | Posted by in ANATOMY | Comments Off on Upper Limb

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