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Proteinuria and Nephrotic Syndrome Shubha Ananthakrishnan George A. Kaysen The ability of the kidney to retain plasma proteins is essential for life. Normal serum protein concentration is of the order…

Obstructive Nephropathy: Pathophysiology and Management Kevin P. G. Harris Introduction Urine that is produced by the kidney is conveyed to the urinary bladder by the renal pelvis and ureter. This…

The Kidney in Hypertension Diana I. Jalal Charles R. Nolan Robert W. Schrier Global Burden of Hypertension Cardiovascular disease is the most common cause of death in economically developed countries…

Acute Kidney Injury: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Management Charles L. Edelstein Acute kidney injury (AKI) (defined as an increase in serum creatinine >0.5 mg/dL) occurs in 1% of hospital admissions (1),…

Disorders of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System John M. Carson Matthew K. Abramowitz Manish P. Ponda Thomas H. Hostetter The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) has been conserved through evolution and is present in…

Disorders of Calcium, Phosphorus, Vitamin D, and Parathyroid Hormone Activity Mordecai M. Popovtzer Serum Calcium Concentration The calcium ion is essential to any physiologic phenomena, including preservation of the integrity…

Normal and Abnormal Magnesium Metabolism Laurence Chan Magnesium is the fourth most common cation in the human body, and it plays a critical role in many metabolic processes, including production…

Disorders of Potassium Metabolism Biff F. Palmer Thomas D. DuBose Jr. Introduction Potassium plays a key role in maintaining cell function. All cells possess the ubiquitous Na+/K+ ATPase exchanger, which…