Structure of the central nervous system
The central nervous system (CNS) allows the coordination and integration of neural signals that control activities of the body, such as respiration. The CNS is also involved in higher cognitive…
Reproductive physiology
Reproductive physiology is tightly regulated via hormonal control by the steroidal sex hormones. The process starts with puberty at around 10–13 years in females and slightly later in males. In…
Thyroid gland
Anatomy The thyroid gland is located anterior to the cricoid cartilage in the anterior neck, composed of two lobes connected by a branch of tissue known as the isthmus (Figure…
Upper gastrointestinal physiology
Salivation The process of digestion starts in the mouth with mastication, in which the physical breakdown of food is combined with saliva. Salivation occurs as saliva is produced by the…
Bladder function and dysfunction
The urinary bladder is a muscular organ in the pelvis that stores normally sterile urine prior to micturition. In the healthy adult, the volume of the bladder is typically 300–500…
Regulation of body fluids
Water constitutes approximately 60% of the healthy human body, with the water in the intracellular and extracellular (interstitial fluid and blood plasma) compartments in osmotic equilibrium. Sodium and chloride ions…
Renal physiology: filtration and tubular function
Each nephron consists of a cup-shaped Bowman’s capsule surrounding the glomerulus, which then passes to the proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, with the distal convoluted tubule draining into…
Structure of the renal system
The renal system is involved in the removal of waste products, excess water and salts from the blood in the form of urine. It controls the level of water and…
Cardiovascular pathophysiology
Cardiovascular disease is the biggest killer in the Western world. Ischaemic heart disease is the leading cause of death in the UK, with stroke (after cancer) accounting for the third-highest…
