Bacterial infections (see also p. 114)

The skin’s normal bacterial flora prevents colonization by pathogenic organisms. A break in epidermal integrity by trauma, leg ulcers, fungal infections (e.g. athlete’s foot) or abnormal scaling of the skin (e.g. in eczema) can allow infection. Nasal carriage of bacteria can be a source of reinfection.

Impetigo

Impetigo is a highly infectious skin disease most common in children (Fig. 24.2). It presents as weeping, exudative areas with a typical honey-coloured crust on the surface. It is spread by direct contact. The term ‘scrum pox’ refers to impetigo spread between rugby players. Staphylococci or group A β-haemolytic streptococci are the causative agents: skin swabs should be taken.

Figure 24.2 Impetigo – crusted blistering lesions on the chin.

Prevention

Prevention is by good personal hygiene, particularly hand washing with soap.

Treatment

Impetigo is usually treated with oral antibiotics for 7–10 days (flucloxacillin 500 mg four times daily for Staphylococcus; phenoxymethylpenicillin 500 mg four times daily for Streptococcus). Other close contacts should be examined and children should avoid school for 1 week after starting therapy. If impetigo appears resistant to treatment or recurrent, take nasal swabs and check other family members. Nasal mupirocin (three times daily for 1 week) is useful to eradicate nasal carriage, especially in hospital staff. Community-acquired MRSA (in chapter 4) is increasingly recognized as a cause of superficial skin infections and treatment should be governed by bacterial sensitivities.

FURTHER READING

Liu C, Bayer A, Cosgrove SE et al. Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children: executive summary. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 52:285–292.

Bullous impetigo/staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome

Rarely Staphylococcus releases an exfoliating toxin which acts high up in the epidermis: toxin A causes blistering at the site of infection (bullous impetigo), toxin B spreads through the body causing more widespread blistering (staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome, SSSS). The latter is more common in childhood with very low mortality rates. In adults it is often associated with renal disease or immunosuppression, and mortality rates increase to 50%. Both these toxins cleave desmoglein 1 (a desmosomal protein) so mucosal involvement does not occur (this is analogous to pemphigus foliaceous which has the same target antigen, p. 1222).

Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome.

SSSS can mimic toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN, see p. 1231). It can be differentiated in two ways: mucosal involvement only occurs in TEN, and skin biopsy shows a more superficial split in SSSS (intraepidermal) than in TEN (subepidermal). Both bullous impetigo and SSSS are treated with anti-staphylococcal antibiotics (e.g. flucloxacillin) and supportive care.

Erythrasma

Erythrasma is caused by Corynebacterium minutissimum. It usually presents as an orange-brown flexural rash, and is often seen in the axillae or toe web spaces (Fig. 24.3). It is frequently misdiagnosed as a fungal infection. The rash shows a dramatic coral pink fluorescence under Wood’s (ultraviolet) light.

Figure 24.3 Erythrasma (a) of the axilla; (b) showing pink fluorescence under a Wood’s lamp.

Treatment is with oral erythromycin 500 mg four times daily for 7–10 days.

Folliculitis

Folliculitis is an inflammation of the hair follicle. It presents as itchy or tender papules and pustules. Staphylococcus aureus is frequently implicated. It is commoner in humid climates and when occlusive clothes are worn. A variant occurs in the beard area (called ‘sycosis barbae’), which is commoner in black Africans. This is probably caused by the ability of shaved hair to grow back into the skin, especially if the hair is naturally curly. Extensive, itchy folliculitis of the upper trunk and limbs should alert one to the possibility of underlying HIV infection. Folliculitis following use of hot tubs is due to Pseudomonas ovale.

Treatment is with topical antiseptics, topical antibiotics (e.g. sodium fusidate) or oral antibiotics (e.g. flucloxacillin 500 mg or erythromycin 500 mg both four times daily for 2–4 weeks).

Boils (furuncles)

Boils are a rather more deep-seated infection of the skin, often caused by Staphylococcus. These can cause painful red swellings. They are commoner in teenagers and often recurrent. Recurrent boils may rarely occur in diabetes mellitus or in immunosuppression. Large boils are sometimes called ‘carbuncles’. Swabs should be taken to check antibiotic sensitivity as community-acquired MRSA is an increasingly common cause.

Treatment is with oral antibiotics (e.g. erythromycin 500 mg four times daily for 10–14 days) and occasionally by incision and drainage.

Antiseptics such as chlorhexidine (as soap) can be useful in prophylaxis.

Hidradenitis suppurativa

This condition is characterized by a painful, discharging, chronic inflammation of the skin at sites rich in apocrine glands (axillae, groins, natal cleft). The cause is unknown but it is commoner in females and within some families it appears to be inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion. The initial lesion is occlusion of the hair follicle producing an inflammatory reaction that spreads to the apocrine glands. Clinically it presents after puberty with papules, nodules and abscesses which often progress to cysts and sinus formation. With time, scarring arises. The condition follows a chronic relapsing/remitting course and is worse in obese individuals.

Treatment is difficult but weight loss, ‘prophylactic’ antibiotics, oral retinoids, zinc and co-cyprindiol (2 mg cyproterone acetate + 35 µg ethinylestradiol in females only) have been tried. They should be used as for acne vulgaris (p. 1212). Severe recalcitrant cases have been treated with intravenous infliximab, a monoclonal antibody (p. 72). Surgery and skin grafting is sometimes required.

Pitted keratolysis

This is a superficial infection of the horny layer of the skin caused by a corynebacterium. It frequently involves the soles of the forefoot and appears as numerous small punched-out circular lesions of a rather macerated skin (e.g. as seen after prolonged immersion). There may be an associated hyperhidrosis of the feet and a prominent odour.

Treatment. Topical antibiotics (e.g. sodium fusidate or clindamycin, applied three times daily for 2–4 weeks) and topical anti-sweating lotions are effective therapies.

Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) (p. 130)

Leprosy usually involves the skin, and the clinical features depend on the body’s immune response to the organism Mycobacterium leprae.

Indeterminate leprosy is the commonest clinical type, especially in children. This presents as small, hypopigmented or erythematous circular macules with occasional mild anaesthesia and scaling. This may resolve spontaneously or progress to one of the other types. Biopsy reveals a perineural granulomatous infiltrate and scant acid-fast bacilli.

Tuberculoid leprosy presents with a few larger, hypopigmented (see Fig. 4.28) or erythematous plaques with an active erythematous, often raised, rim. Lesions are usually markedly anaesthetic, dry and hairless, reflecting the nerve damage. Nerves may be enlarged and palpable. Biopsy shows a granulomatous infiltrate centred on nerves but no organisms.

Lepromatous leprosy presents with multiple inflammatory papules, plaques and nodules. Loss of the eyebrows (‘madarosis’) and nasal stuffiness are common. Skin thickening and severe disfigurement may follow. Anaesthesia is much less prominent. Biopsy shows numerous acid-fast bacilli.

Diagnosis and treatment are discussed on page 131.

Skin manifestations of tuberculosis

Tuberculosis can occasionally cause skin manifestations:

Viral exanthem

This is the commonest type of virus-induced rash and presents clinically as a widespread nonspecific erythematous maculopapular rash. It probably arises due to circulating immune complexes of antibody and viral antigen localizing to dermal blood vessels. The rash can be caused by many different viruses (e.g. echovirus, erythrovirus, human herpes virus-6, Epstein–Barr virus; see chapter 4) and so is rarely diagnostic. The rash will resolve spontaneously in 7–10 days.

Slapped cheek syndrome (erythema infectiosum, fifth disease)

See page 101.

Herpes simplex virus (see also p. 97)

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) occurs as two genomic subtypes. Most people are affected in early childhood with HSV type 1 but the infection is usually subclinical. Occasionally it can present with either clusters of painful blisters on the face or a painful gingivostomatitis. In some individuals cell-mediated immunity is poor and they get recurrent attacks of HSV, often manifest as cold sores. Immunosuppression can also cause a recrudescence of HSV. HSV can also autoinoculate into sites of trauma and present as painful blisters/pustules which may be seen for example on the fingers of healthcare workers (‘herpetic whitlow’).

Primary herpes simplex infection.

HSV type 2 infections are discussed on page 97. Other rare complications of HSV infection include corneal ulceration, eczema herpeticum, chronic perianal ulceration in AIDS patients and erythema multiforme.

Varicella zoster virus

Varicella zoster virus (VZV) causes the common childhood infection called chickenpox. It is discussed on page 98. It also causes herpes zoster.

Herpes zoster (shingles)

‘Shingles’ results from a reactivation of VZV. It may be preceded by a prodromal phase of tingling or pain, which is then followed by a painful and tender blistering eruption in a dermatomal distribution (Fig. 24.4 and Fig. 4.15, p. 98). The blisters occur in crops, may become pustular and then crust over. The rash lasts 2–4 weeks and is usually more severe in the elderly. Occasionally more than one dermatome is involved.

Figure 24.4 Herpes zoster in an African male

(courtesy of Dr P Matondo, Lusaka, Zambia).

Complications of shingles include severe, persistent pain (post-herpetic neuralgia), ocular disease (if the ophthalmic nerve is involved) and rarely motor neuropathy.

Human papilloma virus

Human papilloma virus (HPV) is responsible for the common cutaneous infection of ‘viral warts’.

Common warts are papular lesions with a coarse roughened surface, often seen on the hands and feet, but also on other sites. Small black dots (bleeding points) are often seen within the lesion (Fig. 24.5). If they occur on the face they are often elongated (‘filiform’) Children and adolescents are usually affected. Spread is by direct contact and is also associated with trauma.

Figure 24.5 Viral wart.

Plantar warts (verrucae) is the term used for lesions on the soles of the feet. They often appear flat (‘inward growing’) although they have the same papillomatous surface change and black dots are often revealed if the skin is pared down (unlike callosities). Warts may be painful or tender if they are over pressure points or around nail folds.

Plane warts are much less common and are caused by certain HPV subtypes. They are clinically different and appear as very small, flesh-coloured or pigmented, flat-topped lesions (best seen with side-on lighting) with little in the way of surface change and no black dots within them. They are usually multiple and are frequently found on the face or the backs of the hands.

Anogenital warts are usually seen in adults and are normally transmitted by sexual contact. They are rare in childhood and, whilst child sex abuse should always be considered, it should be remembered they may well have been transmitted through non-sexual contact. HPV subtypes 16 and 18 are potentially oncogenic and are associated with cervical and anal carcinomas.

Molluscum contagiosum (‘water blisters’)

Molluscum contagiosum is a common cutaneous infection of childhood caused by the pox virus. Clinically, lesions are multiple small (1–3 mm) translucent papules which often look like fluid-filled vesicles but are in fact solid. Individual lesions may have a central depression called a punctum. They exhibit the Köbner phenomenon (p. 1208). They can occur at any body site including the genitalia. Transmission is by direct contact. Occasionally lesions may be up to 1 cm in diameter (‘giant molluscum’).

They usually continue to occur in crops over 6–12 months and rarely require treatment as they spontaneously resolve. Any form of localized trauma, including scratching, helps speed up resolution, and cryotherapy is used in older children. One per cent stabilized hydrogen peroxide cream or 5% imiquimod cream is used in younger children. Molluscum in an adult, especially if giant, should raise the underlying possibility of immunosuppression, especially HIV infection.