Gynecologic Malignancies







114  


Bladder and Renal Cell Carcinomas


Howard I. Scher, Jonathan E. Rosenberg, Robert J. Motzer







 

BLADDER CANCER


Transitional cell epithelium lines the urinary tract from the renal pelvis to the ureter, urinary bladder, and the proximal two-thirds of the urethra. Cancers can occur at any point: 90% of malignancies develop in the bladder, 8% in the renal pelvis, and 2% in the ureter or urethra. Bladder cancer is the fourth most common cancer in men and the thirteenth in women, with an estimated 72,570 new cases and 15,210 deaths in the United States predicted for the year 2013. The almost 5:1 ratio of incidence to mortality reflects the higher frequency of the less lethal superficial variants compared to the more lethal invasive and metastatic variants. The incidence is roughly four times higher in men than in women and twofold higher in white men than in black men, with a median age of 65 years.


Once diagnosed, urothelial tumors exhibit polychronotropism, which is the tendency to recur over time in new locations in the urothelial tract. As long as urothelium is present, continuous monitoring is required.


EPIDEMIOLOGY


Cigarette smoking is believed to contribute to up to 50% of urothelial cancers in men and nearly 40% in women. The risk of developing a urothelial cancer in male smokers is increased two- to fourfold relative to nonsmokers and continues for 10 years or longer after cessation. Other implicated agents include aniline dyes, the drugs phenacetin and chlornaphazine, and external beam radiation. Chronic cyclophosphamide exposure also increases risk, whereas vitamin A supplements appear to be protective. Exposure to Schistosoma haematobium, a parasite found in many developing countries, is associated with an increase in both squamous and transitional cell carcinomas of the bladder.


PATHOLOGY


Clinical subtypes are grouped into three categories: 75% are superficial, 20% invade muscle, and 5% are metastatic at presentation. Staging of the tumor within the bladder is based on the pattern of growth and depth of invasion. The revised tumor, node, metastasis (TNM) staging system is illustrated in Fig. 114-1. About half of invasive tumors presented originally as superficial lesions that later progressed. Tumors are also rated by grade. Low-grade (highly differentiated) tumors rarely progress to a higher stage, whereas high-grade tumors do.


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FIGURE 114-1   Bladder staging. TNM, tumor, node, metastasis.


More than 95% of urothelial tumors in the United States are transitional cell in origin. Pure squamous cancers with keratinization constitute 3%, adenocarcinomas 2%, and small cell tumors (often with paraneoplastic syndromes) <1%. Adenocarcinomas develop primarily in the urachal remnant in the dome of the bladder or in the periurethral tissues. Paragangliomas, lymphomas, and melanomas are rare. Of the transitional cell tumors, low-grade papillary lesions that grow on a central stalk are most common. These tumors are very friable, have a tendency to bleed, and have a high risk for recurrence, yet they rarely progress to the more lethal invasive variety. In contrast, carcinoma in situ (CIS) is a high-grade tumor that is considered a precursor of the more lethal muscle-invasive disease.


PATHOGENESIS


The multicentric nature of the disease and high recurrence suggests a field effect in the urothelium that results in a predisposition to develop cancer. Molecular genetic analyses suggest that the superficial and invasive lesions develop along distinct molecular pathways. Low-grade noninvasive papillary tumors harbor constitutive activation of the receptor tyrosine kinase-Ras signal transduction pathway and high frequencies of fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 and phosphoinositide-3 kinase α subunit mutations. In contrast, CIS and invasive tumors have a higher frequency of TP53 and RB gene alterations. Within all clinical stages, including Tis, T1, and T2 or greater lesions, tumors with alterations in p53, p21, and/or RB have a higher probability of recurrence, metastasis, and death from disease.


CLINICAL PRESENTATION, DIAGNOSIS, AND STAGING


Hematuria occurs in 80–90% of patients and often reflects exophytic tumors. The bladder is the most common source of gross hematuria (40%), but benign cystitis (22%) is a more common cause than bladder cancer (15%) (Chap. 61). Microscopic hematuria is more commonly of prostate origin (25%); only 2% of bladder cancers produce microscopic hematuria. Once hematuria is documented, a urinary cytology, visualization of the urothelial tract by computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance urogram or intravenous pyelogram, and cystoscopy are recommended if no other etiology is found. Screening asymptomatic individuals for hematuria increases the diagnosis of tumors at an early stage but has not been shown to prolong life. After hematuria, irritative symptoms are the next most common presentation. Ureteral obstruction may cause flank pain. Symptoms of metastatic disease are rarely the first presenting sign.


The endoscopic evaluation includes an examination under anesthesia to determine whether a palpable mass is present. A flexible endoscope is inserted into the bladder, and bladder barbotage for cytology is performed. Visual inspection includes mapping the location, size, and number of lesions, as well as a description of the growth pattern (solid vs papillary). All visible tumors should be resected, and a sample of the muscle underlying the tumor should be obtained to assess the depth of invasion. Normal-appearing areas are biopsied at random to ensure no CIS is present. A notation is made as to whether a tumor was completely or incompletely resected. Selective catheterization and visualization of the upper tracts should be performed if the cytology is positive and no disease is visible in the bladder. Ultrasonography, CT, and/or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are used to determine whether a tumor extends to perivesical fat (T3) and to document nodal spread. Distant metastases are assessed by CT of the chest and abdomen, MRI, or radionuclide imaging of the skeleton.



CARCINOMA OF THE RENAL PELVIS AND URETER


About 5000 cases of renal pelvis and ureter cancer occur each year; nearly all are transitional cell carcinomas similar to bladder cancer in biology and appearance. This tumor is associated with chronic phenacetin abuse and aristolochic acid consumption in Chinese herbal preparations; aristolochic acid also seems to be associated with Balkan nephropathy, a chronic interstitial nephritis endemic in Bulgaria, Greece, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Romania. In addition, upper tract urothelial carcinoma is linked to hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer.


The most common symptom is painless gross hematuria, and the disease is usually detected on imaging during the workup for hematuria. Patterns of spread are like bladder cancer. For low-grade disease localized to the renal pelvis and ureter, nephroureterectomy (including excision of the distal ureter with a portion of the bladder) is associated with 5-year survival of 80–90%. More invasive or poorly differentiated tumors are more likely to recur locally and to metastasize. Metastatic disease is treated with the chemotherapy used in bladder cancer, and the outcome is similar to that of metastatic bladder cancer.


RENAL CELL CARCINOMA


Renal cell carcinomas account for 90–95% of malignant neoplasms arising from the kidney. Notable features include resistance to cytotoxic agents, infrequent responses to biologic response modifiers such as interleukin (IL) 2, robust activity to antiangiogenesis targeted agents, and a variable clinical course for patients with metastatic disease, including anecdotal reports of spontaneous regression.


EPIDEMIOLOGY


The incidence of renal cell carcinoma continues to rise and is now nearly 65,000 cases annually in the United States, resulting in 13,700 deaths. The male-to-female ratio is 2:1. Incidence peaks between the ages of 50 and 70 years, although this malignancy may be diagnosed at any age. Many environmental factors have been investigated as possible contributing causes; the strongest association is with cigarette smoking. Risk is also increased for patients who have acquired cystic disease of the kidney associated with end-stage renal disease and for those with tuberous sclerosis. Most cases are sporadic, although familial forms have been reported. One is associated with von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) syndrome. VHL syndrome is an autosomal dominant disorder. Genetic studies identified the VHL gene on the short arm of chromosome 3. Approximately 35% of individuals with VHL disease develop clear cell renal cell carcinoma. Other associated neoplasms include retinal hemangioma, hemangioblastoma of the spinal cord and cerebellum, pheochromocytoma, neuroendocrine tumors and cysts, and cysts in the epididymis of the testis in men and the broad ligament in women.


PATHOLOGY AND GENETICS


Renal cell neoplasia represents a heterogeneous group of tumors with distinct histopathologic, genetic, and clinical features ranging from benign to high-grade malignant (Table 114-3). They are classified on the basis of morphology and histology. Categories include clear cell carcinoma (60% of cases), papillary tumors (5–15%), chromophobe tumors (5–10%), oncocytomas (5–10%), and collecting or Bellini duct tumors (<1%). Papillary tumors tend to be bilateral and multifocal. Chromophobe tumors have a more indolent clinical course, and oncocytomas are considered benign neoplasms. In contrast, Bellini duct carcinomas, which are thought to arise from the collecting ducts within the renal medulla, are rare but often very aggressive. Clear cell tumors, the predominant histology, are found in >80% of patients who develop metastases. Clear cell tumors arise from the epithelial cells of the proximal tubules and usually show chromosome 3p deletions. Deletions of 3p21–26 (where the VHL gene maps) are identified in patients with familial as well as sporadic tumors. VHL encodes a tumor suppressor protein that is involved in regulating the transcription of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), and a number of other hypoxia-inducible proteins. Inactivation of VHL leads to overexpression of these agonists of the VEGF and PDGF receptors, which promote tumor angiogenesis and tumor growth. Agents that inhibit proangiogenic growth factor activity show antitumor effects. Enormous genetic variability has been documented in tumors from individual patients. Although the tumors have a clear clonal origin and often contain VHL mutations in common, different portions of the primary tumor and different metastatic sites may have wide variation in genetic lesions they contain. This tumor heterogeneity may underlie the emergence of treatment resistance.









TABLE 114-3


CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL NEOPLASMS ARISING FROM THE KIDNEY


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CLINICAL PRESENTATION


The presenting signs and symptoms include hematuria, abdominal pain, and a flank or abdominal mass. Other symptoms are fever, weight loss, anemia, and a varicocele. The tumor is most commonly detected as an incidental finding on a radiograph. Widespread use of radiologic cross-sectional imaging procedures (CT, ultrasound, MRI) contributes to earlier detection, including incidental renal masses detected during evaluation for other medical conditions. The increasing number of incidentally discovered low-stage tumors has contributed to an improved 5-year survival for patients with renal cell carcinoma and increased use of nephron-sparing surgery (partial nephrectomy). A spectrum of paraneoplastic syndromes has been associated with these malignancies, including erythrocytosis, hypercalcemia, nonmetastatic hepatic dysfunction (Stauffer’s syndrome), and acquired dysfibrinogenemia. Erythrocytosis is noted at presentation in only about 3% of patients. Anemia, a sign of advanced disease, is more common.


The standard evaluation of patients with suspected renal cell tumors includes a CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis, chest radiograph, urine analysis, and urine cytology. If metastatic disease is suspected from the chest radiograph, a CT of the chest is warranted. MRI is useful in evaluating the inferior vena cava in cases of suspected tumor involvement or invasion by thrombus. In clinical practice, any solid renal masses should be considered malignant until proven otherwise; a definitive diagnosis is required. If no metastases are demonstrated, surgery is indicated, even if the renal vein is invaded. The differential diagnosis of a renal mass includes cysts, benign neoplasms (adenoma, angiomyolipoma, oncocytoma), inflammatory lesions (pyelonephritis or abscesses), and other primary or metastatic cancers. Other malignancies that may involve the kidney include transitional cell carcinoma of the renal pelvis, sarcoma, lymphoma, and Wilms’ tumor. All of these are less common causes of renal masses than is renal cell cancer.


STAGING AND PROGNOSIS


Staging is based on the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) staging system (Fig. 114-2). Stage I tumors are <7 cm in greatest diameter and confined to the kidney, stage II tumors are ≥7 cm and confined to the kidney, stage III tumors extend through the renal capsule but are confined to Gerota’s fascia (IIIa) or involve a single hilar lymph node (N1), and stage IV disease includes tumors that have invaded adjacent organs (excluding the adrenal gland) or involve multiple lymph nodes or distant metastases. The 5-year survival rate varies by stage: >90% for stage I, 85% for stage II, 60% for stage III, and 10% for stage IV.


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FIGURE 114-2   Renal cell carcinoma staging. TNM, tumor, node, metastasis.




 










115  


Benign and Malignant Diseases of the Prostate


Howard I. Scher, James A. Eastham







 

Benign and malignant changes in the prostate increase with age. Autopsies of men in the eighth decade of life show hyperplastic changes in >90% and malignant changes in >70% of individuals. The high prevalence of these diseases among the elderly, who often have competing causes of morbidity and mortality, mandates a risk-adapted approach to diagnosis and treatment. This can be achieved by considering these diseases as a series of states. Each state represents a distinct clinical milestone for which therapy(ies) may be recommended based on current symptoms, the risk of developing symptoms, or death from disease in relation to death from other causes within a given time frame. For benign proliferative disorders, symptoms of urinary frequency, infection, and potential for obstruction are weighed against the side effects and complications of medical or surgical intervention. For prostate malignancies, the risks of developing the disease, symptoms, or death from cancer are balanced against the morbidities of the recommended treatments and preexisting comorbidities.


ANATOMY


The prostate is located in the pelvis and is surrounded by the rectum, the bladder, the periprostatic and dorsal vein complexes and neurovascular bundles that are responsible for erectile function, and the urinary sphincter that is responsible for passive urinary control. The prostate is composed of branching tubuloalveolar glands arranged in lobules surrounded by fibromuscular stroma. The acinar unit includes an epithelial compartment made up of epithelial, basal, and neuroendocrine cells and separated by a basement membrane, and a stromal compartment that includes fibroblasts and smooth-muscle cells. Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP) are produced in the epithelial cells. Both prostate epithelial cells and stromal cells express androgen receptors (ARs) and depend on androgens for growth. Testosterone, the major circulating androgen, is converted by the enzyme 5α-reductase to dihydrotestosterone in the gland.


The periurethral portion of the gland increases in size during puberty and after the age of 55 years due to the growth of nonmalignant cells in the transition zone of the prostate that surrounds the urethra. Most cancers develop in the peripheral zone, and cancers in this location may be palpated during a digital rectal examination (DRE).


PROSTATE CANCER


In 2013, approximately 238,590 prostate cancer cases were diagnosed, and 29,720 men died from prostate cancer in the United States. The absolute number of prostate cancer deaths has decreased in the past 5 years, which has been attributed by some to the widespread use of PSA-based detection strategies. However, the benefit of screening on survival is unclear. The paradox of management is that although 1 in 6 men will eventually be diagnosed with the disease, and the disease remains the second leading cause of cancer deaths in men, only 1 man in 30 with prostate cancer will die of his disease.


EPIDEMIOLOGY


Epidemiologic studies show that the risk of being diagnosed with prostate cancer increases by a factor of two if one first-degree relative is affected and by four if two or more are affected. Current estimates are that 40% of early-onset and 5–10% of all prostate cancers are hereditary. Prostate cancer affects ethnic groups differently. Matched for age, African-American males have both a higher incidence of prostate cancer and larger tumors and more worrisome histologic features than white males. Polymorphic variants of the AR, the cytochrome P450 C17, and the steroid 5α-reductase type II (SRD5A2) genes have been implicated in the variations in incidence.


The prevalence of autopsy-detected cancers is similar around the world, while the incidence of clinical disease varies. Thus, environmental and dietary factors may play a role in prostate cancer growth and progression. High consumption of dietary fats, such as α-linoleic acid or the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons that form when red meats are cooked, is believed to increase risk. Similar to breast cancer in Asian women, the risk of prostate cancer in Asian men increases when they move to Western environments. Protective factors include consumption of the isoflavonoid genistein (which inhibits 5α-reductase) found in many legumes, cruciferous vegetables that contain the isothiocyanate sulforaphane, retinoids such as lycopene found in tomatoes, and inhibitors of cholesterol biosynthesis (e.g., statin drugs). The development of prostate cancer is a multistep process. One early change is hypermethylation of the GSTP1 gene promoter, which leads to loss of function of a gene that detoxifies carcinogens. The finding that many prostate cancers develop adjacent to a lesion termed proliferative inflammatory atrophy (PIA) suggests a role for inflammation.


PREVENTION


Currently no drugs or dietary supplements are approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for prevention of prostate cancer, nor are any recommended by the major clinical guidelines. Although statins may have some protective effect, the potential risks outweigh the benefits given the small number of men who die of prostate cancer. The results from several large, double-blind, randomized chemoprevention trials established 5α-reductase inhibitors (5ARI) as the most likely therapy to reduce the future risk of a prostate cancer diagnosis. The Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial (PCPT), in which men older than age 55 years received placebo or the 5ARI finasteride, which inhibits the type 1 isoform, showed a 25% (95% confidence interval 19–31%) reduction in the period prevalence of prostate cancer across all age groups in favor of finasteride (18.4%) over placebo (24.4%). In the Reduction by Dutasteride of Prostate Cancer Events (REDUCE) trial, a similar 23% reduction in the 4-year period prevalence was observed in favor of dutasteride (p = .001). Dutasteride inhibits both the type 1 and type 2 5ARI isoforms. While both studies met their endpoint, there was concern that most of the cancers that were prevented were low risk and that there was a slightly higher rate of clinically significant cancers (those with higher Gleason score) in the treatment arm. Neither drug was FDA-approved for prostate cancer prevention. In comparison, the Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT), which enrolled African-American men age ≥50 years and others age ≥55 years, showed no difference in cancer incidence in patients receiving vitamin E (4.6%) or selenium (4.9%) alone or in combination (4.6%) relative to placebo (4.4%). A similar lack of benefit for vitamin E, vitamin C, and selenium was seen in the Physicians Health Study II.


THE CLINICAL STATES MODEL


The prostate cancer continuum—from the appearance of a preneoplastic and invasive lesion localized to the prostate, to a metastatic lesion that results in symptoms and, ultimately, mortality—can span decades. To facilitate disease management, competing risks are considered in the context of a series of clinical states (Fig. 115-1). The states are defined operationally on the basis of whether or not a cancer diagnosis has been established and, for those with a diagnosis, whether or not metastases are detectable on imaging studies and the measured level of testosterone in the blood. With this approach, an individual resides in only one state and remains in that state until he has progressed. At each assessment, the decision to offer treatment and the specific form of treatment are based on the risk posed by the cancer relative to competing causes of mortality that may be present in that individual. It follows that the more advanced the disease, the greater is the need for treatment.


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FIGURE 115-1   Clinical states of prostate cancer. PSA, prostate-specific antigen.


For those without a cancer diagnosis, the decision to undergo testing to detect a cancer is based on the individual’s estimated life expectancy and, separately, the probability that a clinically significant cancer may be present. For those with a prostate cancer diagnosis, the clinical states model considers the probability of developing symptoms or dying from prostate cancer. Thus, a patient with localized prostate cancer who has had all cancer removed surgically remains in the state of localized disease as long as the PSA remains undetectable. The time within a state becomes a measure of the efficacy of an intervention, although the effect may not be assessable for years. Because many men with active cancer are not at risk for metastases, symptoms, or death, the clinical states model allows a distinction between cure—the elimination of all cancer cells, the primary therapeutic objective when treating most cancers—and cancer control, in which the tempo of the illness is altered and symptoms are controlled until the patient dies of other causes. These can be equivalent therapeutically from a patient standpoint if the patient has not experienced symptoms of the disease or the treatment needed to control it. Even when a recurrence is documented, immediate therapy is not always necessary. Rather, as at the time of diagnosis, the need for intervention is based on the tempo of the illness as it unfolds in the individual, relative to the risk-to-benefit ratio of the therapy being considered.


SCREENING AND DIAGNOSIS


Physical Examination     The need to pursue a diagnosis of prostate cancer is based on symptoms, an abnormal DRE, or, more typically, a change in or an elevated serum PSA. The urologic history should focus on symptoms of outlet obstruction, continence, potency, or change in ejaculatory pattern.


The DRE focuses on prostate size and consistency and abnormalities within or beyond the gland. Many cancers occur in the peripheral zone and may be palpated on DRE. Carcinomas are characteristically hard, nodular, and irregular, while induration may also be due to benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH) or calculi. Overall, 20–25% of men with an abnormal DRE have cancer.


Prostate-Specific Antigen     PSA (kallikrein-related peptidase 3; KLK3) is a kallikrein-related serine protease that causes liquefaction of seminal coagulum. It is produced by both nonmalignant and malignant epithelial cells and, as such, is prostate-specific, not prostate cancer–specific. Serum levels may also increase from prostatitis and BPH. Serum levels are not significantly affected by DRE, but the performance of a prostate biopsy can increase PSA levels up to tenfold for 8–10 weeks. PSA circulating in the blood is inactive and mainly occurs as a complex with the protease inhibitor α1-antichymotrypsin and as free (unbound) PSA forms. The formation of complexes between PSA, α2-macroglobulin, or other protease inhibitors is less significant. Free PSA is rapidly eliminated from the blood by glomerular filtration with an estimated half-life of 12–18 h. Elimination of PSA bound to α1-antichymotrypsin is slow (estimated half-life of 1–2 weeks) because it too is largely cleared by the kidneys. Levels should be undetectable after about 6 weeks if the prostate has been removed. Immunohistochemical staining for PSA can be used to establish a prostate cancer diagnosis.


PSA-BASED SCREENING AND EARLY DETECTION     PSA testing was approved by the U.S. FDA in 1994 for early detection of prostate cancer, and the widespread use of the test has played a significant role in the proportion of men diagnosed with early-stage cancers: more than 70–80% of newly diagnosed cancers are clinically organ-confined. The level of PSA in blood is strongly associated with the risk and outcome of prostate cancer. A single PSA measured at age 60 is associated (area under the curve [AUC] of 0.90) with lifetime risk of death from prostate cancer. Most prostate cancer deaths (90%) occur among men with PSA levels in the top quartile (>2 ng/mL), although only a minority of men with PSA >2 ng/mL will develop lethal prostate cancer. Despite this and mortality rate reductions reported from large randomized prostate cancer screening trials, routine use of the test remains controversial.


The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) reviewed the evidence for screening for prostate cancer and made a clear recommendation against screening. By giving a grade of “D” in the recommendation statement that was based on this review, the USPSTF concluded that “there is moderate or high certainty that this service has no net benefit or that the harms outweigh the benefits.” Whether the harms of screening, overdiagnosis, and overtreatment are justified by the benefits in terms of reduced prostate cancer mortality is open to reasonable doubt. In response to the USPSTF, the American Urological Association (AUA) updated their consensus statement regarding prostate cancer screening. They concluded that the quality of evidence for the benefits of screening was moderate, and evidence for harm was high for men age 55–69 years. For men outside this age range, evidence was lacking for benefit, but the harms of screening, including overdiagnosis and overtreatment, remained. The AUA recommends shared decision making considering PSA-based screening for men age 55–69, a target age group for whom benefits may outweigh harms. Outside this age range, PSA-based screening as a routine test was not recommended based on the available evidence. The entire guideline is available at www.AUAnet.org/education/guidelines/prostate-cancer-detection.cfm.


The PSA criteria used to recommend a diagnostic prostate biopsy have evolved over time. However, based on the commonly used cut point for prostate biopsy (a total PSA ≥4 ng/mL), most men with a PSA elevation do not have histologic evidence of prostate cancer at biopsy. In addition, many men with PSA levels below this cut point harbor cancer cells in their prostate. Information from the PCPT demonstrates that there is no PSA below which the risk of prostate cancer is zero. Thus, the PSA level establishes the likelihood that a man will harbor cancer if he undergoes a prostate biopsy. The goal is to increase the sensitivity of the test for younger men more likely to die of the disease and to reduce the frequency of detecting cancers of low malignant potential in elderly men more likely to die of other causes. Patients with symptomatic prostatitis should have a course of antibiotics before biopsy. However, the routine use of antibiotics in an asymptomatic man with an elevated PSA level is strongly discouraged.


Prostate Biopsy     A diagnosis of cancer is established by an image-guided needle biopsy. Direct visualization by transrectal ultrasound (TRUS) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) assures that all areas of the gland are sampled. Contemporary schemas advise an extended-pattern 12-core biopsy that includes sampling from the peripheral zone as well as a lesion-directed palpable nodule or suspicious image-guided sampling. Men with an abnormal PSA and negative biopsy are advised to undergo a repeat biopsy.


BIOPSY PATHOLOGY     Each core of the biopsy is examined for the presence of cancer, and the amount of cancer is quantified based on the length of the cancer within the core and the percentage of the core involved. Of the cancers identified, >95% are adenocarcinomas; the rest are squamous or transitional cell tumors or, rarely, carcinosarcomas. Metastases to the prostate are rare, but in some cases colon cancers or transitional cell tumors of the bladder invade the gland by direct extension.


When prostate cancer is diagnosed, a measure of histologic aggressiveness is assigned using the Gleason grading system, in which the dominant and secondary glandular histologic patterns are scored from 1 (well-differentiated) to 5 (undifferentiated) and summed to give a total score of 2–10 for each tumor. The most poorly differentiated area of tumor (i.e., the area with the highest histologic grade) often determines biologic behavior. The presence or absence of perineural invasion and extracapsular spread is also recorded.


Prostate Cancer Staging     The tumor, node, metastasis (TNM) staging system includes categories for cancers identified solely on the basis of an abnormal PSA (T1c), those that are palpable but clinically confined to the gland (T2), and those that have extended outside the gland (T3 and T4) (Table 115-1, Fig. 115-2). DRE alone is inaccurate in determining the extent of disease within the gland, the presence or absence of capsular invasion, involvement of seminal vesicles, and extension of disease to lymph nodes. Because of the inadequacy of DRE for staging, the TNM staging system was modified to include the results of imaging. Unfortunately, no single test has proven to accurately indicate the stage or the presence of organ-confined disease, seminal vesicle involvement, or lymph node spread.









TABLE 115-1


TNM CLASSIFICATION


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FIGURE 115-2   T stages of prostate cancer. (A) T1—Clinically inapparent tumor, neither palpable nor visible by imaging; (B) T2—Tumor confined within prostate; (C) T3—Tumor extends through prostate capsule and may invade the seminal vesicles; (D) T4—Tumor is fixed or invades adjacent structures. Eighty-one percent of patients present with local disease (T1 and T2), which is associated with a 5-year survival rate of 100%. An additional 12% of patients present with regional disease (T3 and T4 without metastases), which is also associated with a 100% survival rate after 5 years. Four percent of patients present with distant disease (T4 with metastases), which is associated with a 28% 5-year survival rate. (Three percent of patients are ungraded, and this group is associated with a 73% 5-year survival rate.) (Data from AJCC, http://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/prost.html. Figure © 2014 Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center; used with permission.)


TRUS is the imaging technique most frequently used to assess the primary tumor, but its chief use is directing prostate biopsies, not staging. No TRUS finding consistently indicates cancer with certainty. Computed tomography (CT) lacks sensitivity and specificity to detect extraprostatic extension and is inferior to MRI in visualization of lymph nodes. In general, MRI performed with an endorectal coil is superior to CT to detect cancer in the prostate and to assess local disease extent. T1-weighted MRI produces a high signal in the periprostatic fat, periprostatic venous plexus, perivesicular tissues, lymph nodes, and bone marrow. T2-weighted MRI demonstrates the internal architecture of the prostate and seminal vesicles. Most cancers have a low signal, while the normal peripheral zone has a high signal, although the technique lacks sensitivity and specificity. MRI is also useful for the planning of surgery and radiation therapy.


Radionuclide bone scans (bone scintigraphy) are used to evaluate spread to osseous sites. This test is sensitive but relatively nonspecific because areas of increased uptake are not always related to metastatic disease. Healing fractures, arthritis, Paget’s disease, and other conditions will also cause abnormal uptake. True-positive bone scans are uncommon when the PSA is <10 ng/mL unless the tumor is high grade.



BENIGN DISEASE






BENIGN PROSTATIC HYPERTROPHY


BPH is a pathologic process that contributes to the development of lower urinary tract symptoms in men. Such symptoms, arising from lower urinary tract dysfunction, are further subdivided into obstructive symptoms (urinary hesitancy, straining, weak stream, terminal dribbling, prolonged voiding, incomplete emptying) and irritative symptoms (urinary frequency, urgency, nocturia, urge incontinence, small voided volumes). Lower urinary tract symptoms and other sequelae of BPH are not just due to a mass effect, but are also likely due to a combination of the prostatic enlargement and age-related detrusor dysfunction.


Nov 30, 2016 | Posted by in GENERAL & FAMILY MEDICINE | Comments Off on Gynecologic Malignancies

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