The renal system is involved in the removal of waste products, excess water and salts from the blood in the form of urine. It controls the level of water and…

Coagulation and thrombosis (Figure 34.1) The process of haemostasis is the formation of clots at the site of damage to a blood vessel to prevent blood loss. It involves both…

The volume of blood in an adult is around 5 litres and is normally composed of red blood cells (RBCs: erythrocytes) for gas transport (Chapter 25), white blood cells (WBCs)…

The purpose of the heart is for the left ventricle to pump blood around the systemic circulation to perfuse organs and tissues, and for the right ventricle to pump blood…

Every minute at rest the human body consumes about 200 mL of oxygen (O2) and produces about 200 mL of carbon dioxide (CO2). Oxygen Forms of oxygen carriage and haemoglobin…

The respiratory system serves to ensure that all tissues receive the O2 they need and can dispose of the CO2 they produce. Lungs exchange gases with atmosphere via the nasal…

The respiratory tract extends from the lips and nostrils to the alveoli of the lungs (Figure 23.1). It comprises a network of conducting and respiratory airways allowing air to pass…

Neuromuscular junction (NMJ) The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is a specialised synapse between motor neurones and skeletal muscle, which enables nervous control of skeletal muscle contraction. At the NMJ, the neurone…

The autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary actions such as breathing, the regulation of cardiac contractions, blood pressure control, gastrointestinal secretions and motility, control of pupil diameter, sweating, bladder control and…

Nervous activity involves the spread of electrical charge via the generation and propagation of action potentials. Communication between neurones is predominantly via chemical transmission at synapses, in which an impulse…