The Greek philosopher Hippocrates (460–377 BC) believed that the mind was in the brain and controlled the body. Beginning with Descartes in the 17th century, dualists considered the mind and body to be separate. The body was constructed from matter but the mind was not. The soul was located in the brain and controlled the body. Later philosophers, including John Locke (1632–1704), argued that Hippocrates was correct. If the mind can interact with the body then it must be physical, i.e. the mind is a product of the brain. The sense organs send messages to the brain so that the mind can direct the body towards appropriate action. This belief underlies the theory of monism (Dennett 1992). There is still no agreement as to whether monists or dualists are correct but most people studying the mind today relate to other sciences such as physics and cannot explain a disembodied mind and therefore are monists.

Smail (2008) says that ‘many of the things that we do are shaped by behavioural dispositions, moods, emotions and feelings that have a deep evolutionary history’. These body states have been shown to be physiological in nature, located in specific parts of the brain. They are associated with a range of neurotransmitters and hormones such as testosterone, oestrogen, serotonin, dopamine, endorphins, oxytocin, prolactin, vasopressin, epinephrine and others. These chemicals help to determine how we feel; the role of oxytocin in maternal–infant attachment is discussed later in the chapter. Smail suggests this is firm evidence that the brain generates the mind and that dualism is incorrect.

There are two anxieties about psychosocial research findings. First, they may be affected by the biases and beliefs of the researchers’ norms (Davis-Floyd & Mather 2002). Secondly, political leaders may use the theories for their own purposes. Hrdy (1999) discusses ‘the politics of motherhood’, in particular the mother’s role in child development. The dichotomy is whether mothers stay at home or go out to work. Governments change their views when women workers are needed. Smail (2008) suggests that, although there are many cultural differences in behaviour, culture is superimposed on biology and there are universal behavioural norms such as parenting.

For example, human societies exhibit multiple ways of thinking which may affect the provision of health care. Davis-Floyd & Mather (2002) describe three paradigms of health care which influence modern maternity care: the technocratic, humanistic and holistic models.

Davis-Floyd & Mather (2002) visualise combining aspects from each model to provide the best care possible. There is evidence that the mind plays an important role in the physical state of the body but more evidence is needed.

Bowlby (1984) wrote:

He described four main characteristics of instinctive behaviour:

In the past there was argument over which behaviours were innate (inborn, genetic, natural) and which were acquired (learned, environmental, nurtured) but this is a meaningless division. Every biological characteristic, physiological or behavioural, is a product of gene–environment interaction (Barrett et al 2002). If a biological characteristic is little influenced by environmental variations it is called environmentally stable and any characteristic that is much influenced by the environment is environmentally labile. Instinctive behaviour is environmentally stable (Hinde 1959).

Some believe that the variability of human behaviour proves that it is culturally driven and nothing is instinctive but Bowlby (1984) disagreed. In higher species instinctive behaviour is not stereotyped but follows a recognisable pattern (characteristic 1) and runs a predictable course (characteristic 2). Mating, child care and the attachment of the young to their parents have survival value for both individual and species (characteristic 3). Despite the immense variety of cultural norms, some behaviours repeatedly emerge (characteristic 4).

Bowlby believed that behavioural attributes contribute to survival and reproduction when they operate within a prescribed environment. Environmentally stable behaviours are controlled by elements he called ‘environments of adaptedness’: for instance, the range of environmental temperatures the body can tolerate or the altitude at which the cardiovascular system can function.

Human capacity for innovation has enabled survival in a wide range of environments, called by some the human environment of evolutionary adaptedness (Barrett et al 2002, Irons 1998). Also, humans have manufactured safe environments, leading to an incredible increase in world population. In the last 15 000 years a rise in pastoralism and agriculture led to the growth of cities. Unfortunately this led to an increased risk of infection and pollution.

The mother’s social surroundings are part of the environment in which childbearing and childrearing take place. The relationship between the sexes is also important as the basis of sexual difference lies in the investment in the gametes. Women produce fewer, larger ova compared to the millions of tiny sperm. Women also provide energy to the fetus in utero and supply milk during infancy (Hrdy 1999). Male parenting is necessary for the support of women and their children during the long human growth to maturity (Small 2002). However, there is no consensus on the biological nature of the human family and it is risky to define evolutionary behaviour in terms of modern hunter–gatherers.

The development of theories over time and how they link with culture is interesting. The study of ethology began with Tinbergen and Lorenz in the 1950s. Lorenz believed that if attachment behaviour did not occur within the critical period the opportunity was lost. Hinde (1982) was less restrictive and described a sensitive period as ‘a given event that can be produced more readily during a certain period than earlier or later’.