Basic mechanisms of drug action
Drugs interact with their specific target, which may be coupled to a second messenger and/or effector system, leading to a cellular response. Pharmacological targets Receptors Receptors are proteins that are…
Cell organelles
Organelles (Figure 3.1) are most commonly defined as specialised structures within a cell that are enclosed by a membrane. The most prominent organelle of eukaryotic cells is the nucleus, which…
Carbohydrate biochemistry
Carbohydrates (CHOs) are probably the most abundant organic molecules in living organisms and serve a variety of roles. Carbohydrates provide about 55% of dietary calories for a healthy human, so…
Protein biochemistry
Proteins are polymers of the 20 common L-amino acids and constitute about 16% of the body weight of the average adult. Proteins have a wide range of functions in the…
Organisation of cell membranes
Cell membranes Cell membranes are large cellular structures that constitute the boundary of a cell or a cell organelle. In contrast to proteins or nucleic acids, membranes are not made…
Lipid biochemistry
Lipids are defined as organic molecules that share the property of being water insoluble but are highly soluble in organic solvents. They are structurally diverse and have many different functions,…
Hepatocellular Carcinoma and Variants
Hepatocellular Carcinoma in Cirrhotic LiverAutopsy specimen shows a large, central mass with small satellite tumor nodules . The latter may represent intrahepatic spread due to vascular invasion or independent primaries….
Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis
May affect large bile ducts (both intra- and extrahepatic), small bile ducts, or both Etiology/Pathogenesis • Unknown etiology Frequent association with inflammatory bowel disease, particularly ulcerative colitis Clinical Issues • Predilection for…
Ductal Adenocarcinoma, Including Variants
Comprises 85-90% of all pancreatic neoplasms Clinical Issues • Most cases unresectable at presentation • Nonspecific symptoms often mean delay in diagnosis Macroscopic • Majority in head of pancreas • Poorly defined, firm mass…
