The reproductive system
Breast Anatomy and physiology The breasts are modified sweat glands. The openings of the lactiferous ducts are on the apex of the nipple, which is erectile tissue. The nipple is…
The ear, nose and throat
Ear Anatomy and physiology The ear is the specialised sensory organ of hearing and balance. It is divided anatomically into the external, middle and inner ear. External ear The external…
Babies and children
Babies A baby is a neonate for its first 4 weeks and an infant for its first year. Neonates are classified by gestational age or birthweight ( Box 15.1 )….
The cardiovascular system
Heart Anatomy and physiology The heart comprises two muscular pumps working in series, covered in a serous sac (pericardium) that allows free movement with each heart beat and respiration (…
Preparing for practice
The transition from medical student to junior doctor culminates in independent practice in a variety of clinical settings. This chapter addresses how the clinical skills described in this book are…
The gastrointestinal system
Anatomy and physiology The gastrointestinal system comprises the alimentary tract, the liver, the biliary system, the pancreas and the spleen. The alimentary tract extends from the mouth to the anus…
The nervous system
Anatomy and physiology The nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord (central nervous system, CNS) and the peripheral nerves (peripheral nervous system, PNS). The PNS includes the autonomic…
The deteriorating patient
A deteriorating patient is one who becomes acutely unwell in the hospital setting. This can occur at any stage of a patient’s illness but is more common if the patient…
General aspects of examination
General principles of physical examination The process of taking a history and conducting a physical examination is artificially separated in classical medical teaching, to encourage learners to develop a structured…
The dying patient
Around 1% of the population in economically developed countries die each year. Some deaths are unexpected but the majority are the result of one or more advanced progressive illnesses. It…
