(1)
Canberra, Aust Capital Terr, Australia
Scientific Name
Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.
Synonyms
Anthemis artemisifolia Willd., Anthemis grandiflora Ramat., Anthemis stipulacea Moench, Chrysanthemum hortorum, Chrysanthemum hortorum W. Mill., Chrysanthemum maximoviczianum Ling, Chrysanthemum maximoviczianum var. maximoviczianum, Chrysanthemum morifolium var. genuinum Hemsley, Chrysanthemum morifolium var. morifolium, Chrysanthemum morifolium var. sinense (Sabine) Makino, Chrysanthemum procumbens Blume, Chrysanthemum sabini Lindl., Chrysanthemum sinense Sabine ex Sweet, Chrysanthemum sinense Sabine, Chrysanthemum sinense var. hortense Makino ex Matsum., Chrysanthemum sinense var. sinense, Chrysanthemum stipulaceum (Moench), Dendranthema grandiflorum (Ramat.) Kitam., Dendranthema morifolium (Ramat.) Tzvelev, Dendranthema sinensis (Sabine) Des Moul., Matricaria morifolia (Ramat.) Ramat., Pyrethrum sinense (Sabine) DC., Pyrethrum sinense var. sinense, Tanacetum morifolium (Ramat.) Kitam., Tanacetum sinense (Sabine) Sch. Bip.
Family
Asteraceae
Common/English Names
Chrysanthemum, Mum, Mums, Florists Chrysanthemum, Florist’s Daisy, Garden Mums
Vernacular Names
Brazil: Crisântemo, Crisântemo-Da-China, Crisântemo-Do-Japão, Monsenhor
Chinese: Chu Hua, Huangjuhua, Ju Hua, Qui Hua
Costa Rica: Crisántemo
Czech: Listopadka Velkokvětá
French: Chrysanthème
German: Chrysantheme, Garten-Chrysantheme
Honduras: Crisantemo, Margarita, Rosa De Novia
India: Gundandi (Hindi), Chandramukhi (Manipuri)
Indonesian: Bunga Krisan
Japanese: Kangiku, Ryouri-Giku, Shokoyu-Giku
Korean: Guk Hwa
Malaysia: Kek Hwa, Bunga Chrysanthemum
Nicaragua: Margarita
Philippines: Manzanilla (Iloko), Rosas De Japon (Spanish), Rosas De Japon (Tagalog)
Russian: Chrisantema Šelkovicelistnaja, Kitajskaja, Krupnocvetovaja
Spanish: Crisantemo
Swedish: Krysantemum
Thai: Khek-Huai
Vietnamese: Bạch Cúc, Cúc Hoa Trắng, Đại Cúc
Origin/Distribution
Garden Chrysanthemum is native to China. It has been introduced as an ornamental to Europe, North and South America, Asia, Australia and South Africa.
Agroecology
Chrysanthemum prefers mild cool climates and is grown in areas with mean temperature of 16–24 °C. They are frost sensitive, and low temperature below 10 °C is detrimental for plant growth, development and flowering. Optimum temperature for flowering has been reported to be in the range of 18–21 °C (De Jong 1978; Karlsson et al. 1989). Langton and Horridge (2006) found that chrysanthemum flowered earlier when grown in a 24 °C day/14 °C night temperature regime compared with alternating between continuous 114 and 24 °C conditions on 2-day or 14-day cycles. Karlsson et al. (1989) suggested that chrysanthemum flowering was dependent upon an interaction between day and night temperature, as well as the incident daily photosynthetic photon flux. They also found that a night temperature between 17 and 18 °C yielded the largest flowers and the shortest time to flower in ‘Bright Golden Anne’, regardless of day temperature or irradiance level.
van der Ploeg et al. (2007) divided chrysanthemum cultivation into a long-day (LD) period, during which the plants grow vegetatively, and a short-day (SD) period. During this latter period, flower initiation and further development takes place. The number of days from the start of SD to harvest is referred to as the reaction time, and this trait is very sensitive to temperature, showing a definite temperature optimum (De Jong 1978). Chrysanthemums are short-day (SD) plants; the natural photoperiod of about 12 hours is suitable for good flowering of most cultivars (Kofranek 1980; Kahar 2008). Kahar (2008) found that shortening the day length from about 12 hours under natural photoperiod to 8 hours with and without incandescent lighting did not really improve flowering time and flower quality of C. morifolium cv. Reagan Sunny.
Garden chrysanthemum thrives best in fertile, moist, well-drained slightly acidic soil rich in organic matter in full sun but will grow in less ideal conditions.
Edible Plant Parts and Uses
The flowers and young leaves are edible (Read 1946; Uphof 1968; Tanaka 1976; Facciola 1990). Leaves are cooked or boiled and used as greens or as fritters. They are tangy, bitter and mildly peppery in flavour. The leaves can also be used to flavour vinegar. An aromatic tea is also made from the leaves. The flowering heads and petals are parboiled, seasoned with vinegar or soya sauce, and served as a salad with tofu. They can also be prepared as tempura, pickled, dried or added to soups. In Chinese cuisine, chrysanthemum petals are mixed into a thick snake meat soup to enhance the flavour. In Japan, small chrysanthemum flowers are used as garnish in sashimi. A tangy aromatic tea is made from the flowers or flower petals, commonly called chrysanthemum tea, and is drunk without or with little sugar or honey. In Korea, a rice wine flavoured with chrysanthemum flowers is called ‘gukhwaju’. Chrysanthemum flowers are also widely used as a food supplement and are considered a health food by many consumers (Chu et al. 2004; Lai et al. 2007).
Botany
An herbaceous perennial grows to 1 m high with erect or ascending sometimes procumbent, sparsely branched stem with dense pubescent foliage. Leaves olive-green, aromatic, weakly pubescent to subglabrous on both surfaces on 1–2 cm long petioles. Lamina ovate to oblong ovate in outline, 4–10 cm by 3–5 cm wide, deeply cut (pinnatifid) to shallowly pinnatipartite into short, obtuse, terminal and lateral lobes (Plates 1 and 2), truncate to subcordate at the base, upper leaves entire and smaller. Capitula 3–6 cm across, numerous on 5 cm long pubescent peduncles in lax corymbs. Involucre 10–22 mm in diameter, 4–5 seriate, phyllaries outer ones deltoid-ovate, middle ones ovate, innermost elliptic, broader at apex. Ray florets yellow to variously coloured (pink, white, orange, lavender, purple, red, rust, bronze, olive-green) in cultivars with entire or triserrate oblong ligules (Plates 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8). Disc florets yellow to pale greenish-yellow with 5-toothed corolla tube. Cypsela obovoid, 1.5–2 mm, light brown.
Plate 1
Garden chrysanthemum leaves and immature flower buds
Plate 2
Garden chrysanthemum plants in full bloom
Plate 3
Close view of chrysanthemum (anemone flower type)
Plate 4
(a, b) Chrysanthemum (spider flower type)
Plate 5
Chrysanthemum (decorative flower type)
Plate 6
Chrysanthemum (single daisy-like flower type)
Plate 7
Chrysanthemum (cushion or azalea mums flower type)
Plate 8
Green-flowered chrysanthemum (anemone flower type)
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
Flower Phytochemicals
Four kinds of normal saturated hydrocarbons, C n H2n + 2 (n = 19–22), namely, nonadecane, eicosane, heneicosane and docosane; and campesterol, stigmasterol, β-sitosterol, α-amyrin, palmitic acid, linoleic acid, stearic acid, behenic acid and lignoceric acid were detected in Chrysanthemum morifolium petals (Takahashi et al. 1975). Also 11 free amino acids, arginine, aspartic acid, threonine, serine, glycine, proline, glutamic acid, alanine, leucine, isoleucine and valine, were identified. Two hydroxy taraxastane-type triterpenes, faradiol and heliantriol C, were isolated from the ligulate flowers of C. morifolium (Yasukawa et al. 1998). Content of chlorogenic acid found in the flowers were 0.060–0.467 % (Li et al. 1999). Three flavonoids in C. morifolium were identified as acacetin-7-O-β–d-glucoside, apigenin-7-O-β-d-glucoside and luteolin-7-O-β-d-glucoside (Liu et al. 2001). From C. morifolium, eight compounds were isolated and identified as chrysoeriol (1), apigenin (2), luteolin (3), quercetin (4), chrysoeriol-7-O- β-d-glucoside (5), apigenin-7-O-β-d-glucoside (6), luteolin-7-O-β-d-glucoside (7) and tilianin-7-O-β-d-glucoside (8) (Jia et al. 2003).
From the nonsaponifiable lipid fraction from the methanol flower extract, 24 triterpene diols and triols were isolated, of which three were new compounds: (24S)-25-methoxycycloartane-3β,24-diol, (24S)-25-methoxycycloartane-3β,24,28-triol, and 22α-methoxyfaradiol (Ukiya et al. 2001). Faradiol (9) and heliantriol C (19), present in the nonsaponifiable lipid fraction and as the 3-O-palmitoyl esters in the n-hexane soluble fraction, were the most predominant triterpene diol and triol constituents. Fifteen pentacyclic triterpene diols and triols, consisting of six taraxastanes, faradiol, heliantriol B0, heliantriol C, 22α-methoxyfaradiol, arnidiol and faradiol α-epoxide; five oleananes, maniladiol, erythrodiol, longispinogenin, coflodiol and heliantriol A1; two ursanes, brein and uvaol; and two lupanes, calenduladiol and heliantriol B2, were isolated from the nonsaponifiable lipid fraction of the edible flower extract of C. morifolium (Ukiya et al. 2002). The flavonoids acacetin, apigenin, luteolin and quercetin were isolated from the ethyl acetate fraction of the flower methanol extract (Miyazawa and Hisama 2003). The amount of luteolin was found to be lower than that of luteolin-β-d-glucoside (Hu et al. 2004). Two dicaffeoylquinic acids, 3,5-dicaffeoyl-epi-quinic acid and 1,3-dicaffeoyl-epi-quinic acid, were isolated from Chrysanthemum morifolium together with six known dicaffeoylquinic acid derivatives and three flavonoids (Kim and Lee 2005). Two flavonoid glycosides were isolated from the flowering heads and their structures elucidated as luteolin 4′-methoxy-7-O-(6″-O-acetyl)-β-d-glucopyranoside and acacetin 7-O-(3″-O-acetyl)-β-d-glucopyranoside (Zhang et al. 2006). The flowers were found to contain d-mannitol and saccharide (Cheng et al. 2008).
Sixteen xanthophylls were isolated from chrysanthemum petals among which. Among them, (3S,5S,6R,3’R,6’R)-5,6-dihydro-5,6-dihydroxylutein (1) and five di-Z geometrical isomers of lutein-5,6-epoxide, i.e., 9Z,13’Z (2), 13Z,9’Z (3), 9’Z,13’Z (4), 9Z,13Z (5), and 9Z,9’Z (7), had never before been identified as natural products (Kishimoto et al. 2004). All of the carotenoids isolated from chrysanthemum, except for (9Z)-violaxanthin, are β, ε-carotene (α-carotene) derivatives.
Total anthocyanins and total carotenoids in μg/g fresh weight in C. morifolium cv. Dark Dramatic (orange flowers) were 792.7 and 343.4 μg, respectively; cv. Florida Marble (yellow flowers) was 144.9 μg and cv. Vodka Lime (yellow flowers) was 121.9 μg (Kishimoto et al. 2007). Eleven compounds were identified in the flowers; luteolin (1), quercetin (2), acacetin 7-O-β-d-(3″-acetyl)-glucopyranoside (3), luteolin 7-O-β-d-(6″-acetyl)-glucopyranoside (4), hesperetin 7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside (5), acacetin 7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside (6), diosmetin 7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside (7), apigenin 7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside (8), hesperidin (9), linarin (10) and luteolin 7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside (11) (Wang et al. 2008c). The common chemical constituents in the essential oil of the five Hangjuhua cultivars were juniper camphor (10.51–13.28 %), methyl β, β-dimethylbenzenepropanoic acid ester (1.51–4.89 %), 1,3,3-trimethylcyclohex-1-ene-4-carboxaldehyde, borneol, α-curcumene, α-bisabolol, cis-caryophyllene, benzyl benzoate, 2,4-decadienal and heneicosane (Guo et al. 2008). Juniper camphor was found to be a characteristic constituent in the essential oil of Hangjuhua. A p-hydroxyphenylacetyl flavonoid, diosmetin 7-(6″-O–p-hydroxyphenylacetyl)-O-β-d -glucopyranoside, was isolated from the flowers together with five known flavonoids, luteolin, diosmetin, diosmetin 7-O-β-d-glucopyranoside, diosmin and scolimoside, and four known caffeoylquinic acid derivatives, macranthoin F 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, 1,3-dicaffeoyl-epi-quinic acid and chlorogenic acid (Xie et al. 2009).
Thirty-three volatiles were extracted and identified in dry chrysanthemum flowers comprising mainly unsaturated organic compounds, such as monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes and their oxygenous derivatives; triterpenoids; and aliphatic compounds (Wang et al. 2008a). The compounds included the following: camphene (112.7 μg/g), pinene (106.3 μg/g), bornyl acetate (67.3 μg/g), 3-carene (62. μg/g), eucapyptol (52.1 μg/g), 1,7,7-trimethyl-bicyclo[2.2.1]hept-2-ene (41.3 μg/g), camphor (29.4 μg/g), caryophyllene oxide (20.0 μg/g), 4-methylene-1-(1-methylethyl)-cyclohexene (13.5 μg/g), 2,2,3-trimethyl-3-cyclopentene-1-acetaldehyde (10.9 μg/g), 1-methyl-4-[1-methylethyl]-1,4-cyclohexadiene (9.2 μg/g), borneol (4.2 μg/g), 6,6-dimethyl-2-methylene-bicyclo[2.2.1]heptan-3-one (4.2 μg/g), (1S)-6,6-dimethyl-2-methylenebicyclo[3.1.1]heptane (3.4 μg/g), bicyc[3.1.1]hept-2-en-4-ol,2.6.6-trimethyl-,acetate (3.1 μg/g), 6,6-dimethyl-2-methylenecyclo[3.1.1]heptane (2.7 μg/g), 4-methyl-1-[1-methylethyl]-3-cyclohexen-1-ol (1.8 μg/g), 2-methyl-5-(1-methylethyl)-bicyclo [3.1.0]hex-2-ene (1.7 μg/g), oct-1-enyl acetate (1.7 μg/g), 1-methyl-4-[1-methylethylidene]-cyclohexene (1.6 μg/g), 2-methyl-butanoic acid 2-methylbutylester (1.6 μg/g), 4-camphene (1.4 μg/g), 3,7,7-trimethyl-bicyclo[4.1.0]hept-2-ene (1.4 μg/g), 6,6-dimethyl-bicyclo[3.1.1]hept-2-ene-2-carboxaldehyde (1.4 μg/g), isobornyl acetate (1.4 μg/g),3-cyclopentene-1-acetaldehyde,2,2,3-trimethyl (1.3 μg/g), 1-methyl-3-(1-methylethenyl)-cyclohexene (1.3 μg/g), 1,6,10-dodecatriene,7,11-dimethyl-3-methylene-,[Z] (1.1 μg/g), 1α,2,3,5,6,7,7α,7β-octahydro-1,1,7,7α-tetramethyl-1H-cyclopropa[α]naphthalene (0.8 μg/g), 1,2,3,4,4α,5,6,8α-octahydro-7-methyl-4-methylene-1-(1-methylethyl)-naphthalene (0.7 μg/g), caryophyllene (0.7 μg/g), decahydro-1,1,7-trimethyl-4-methylene-1H-cycloprop[e]azulen-7-ol (0.6 μg/g) and 2,3,6,7,8,8α-hexahydro-1,4,9,9-tetramethyl-1H-3α, 7-methanoazulene (0.6 μg/g).
Twenty-eight 3-hydroxy triterpenoids of taraxastane-type, ψ-taraxasterol, faradiol, heliantriol C, 22α-methoxyfaradiol, faradiol α-epoxide, arnidiol and taraxasterol; of oleanane type, β-amyrin, maniladiol, erythrodiol, longispinogenin and coflodiol; of ursane-type α-amyrin, brein and uvaol; of lupine-type, lupeol, 3-epilupeol, calenduladiol and heliantriol B2; of taraxane-type, taraxerol; of cycloartane-type, cycloartenol, 24-methylenecycloartanol, (24R)-cycloartane-3β,24,25-triol, (24S)-cycloartane-3β,24,25-triol and (24S)-25-ethoxycycloartane-3β,24-diol; of tirucallane-type, helianol, 4,5α-epoxyhelianol and Δ7-tirucallol; and of dammarane-type, dammaradienol, were isolated from the nonsaponifiable lipid fraction of C. morifolium flower extract (Akihisa et al. 2005). One lupane-type 3α-hydroxy triterpenoid (3-epilupeol) was derived from lupeol. Chlorogenic acid; 1,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid; isochlorogenic acid A; isochlorogenic acid C; luteolin-7-O-β-d-glucoside; and apigenin-7-O-β-d-glucoside were detected in C. morifolium flower head (Qin and Wen 2011). The contents of the components in the steam-blanched flower heads were significantly higher than those non-blanched. The contents of chlorogenic acid and isochlorogenic acid A in the steam-blanched semi-opened flower heads were higher than fully opened ones by 53 and 41 %, respectively.
Chrysanthemum morifolium flowers afforded mixtures of the C-3 palmitate and myristate esters (3:2) of mailadiol (1), the C-3 palmitate and myristate esters (3:2) of heliantriol C (2) and fatty acid esters (1:1) of faradiol (3) and arnidol (Ragasa et al. 2005). Two acidic polysaccharides, F4 and F5, were isolated from C. morifolium flowers (Zheng et al. 2006). F4 contained arabinose, galactose and galacturonic acid units in a molar ratio of 1.0:2.3:6.8 and F5 contained arabinose, rhamnose galactose and galacturonic acid units in a molar ratio of 1.0:3.2:1.0:4.3. Further, F4 had a homogalacturonan main chain with arabinogalactan side chain linked to three position of (1 → 3,4)-linked galacturonan and F5 had a rhamnogalacturonan main chain with arabinogalactan side chain linked to 3 position of (1 → 3,4)-linked galacturonan or 4 position of (1 → 2,4)-linked rhamnose. Biological tests revealed that F4 and F5, two new acidic polysaccharides from the flowers, could simulate the mitogen-induced T and B lymphocyte proliferation in-vitro.
Lin and Harnley (2010) identified 46 flavonoids and 17 caffeic acid derivatives in the aqueous methanol extract of chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium) flowers. The following flavonoids were identified: 6,8-C,C-diglucosylapigenin; 6-C-xylosyl-8-C-glucosylapigenin; 6-C-glucosyl-8-C-arabinosylapigenin; 6-C-arabinosyl-8-C-glucosylapigenin; luteolin 7-O-dihexoside; isorhamnetin 3-O-diglucoside; trihydroxymethoxyflavone 7-O-diglucoside; luteolin-O-glucuronylhexoside; luteolin 7-O-pentosylhexoside; luteolin-7-O-rutinoside; quercetin-7-O-galactoside; quercetin-3-O-glucoside; eriodicyol-7-O-glucoside; luteolin-7-O-glucoside; luteolin-7-O-glucuronide; diosmetin 7-O-diglucoside; apigenin-7-O-rutinoside; diosmetin 7-O-rutinoside; apigenin-7-O-glucoside; luteolin glucoside; diosmetin 7-O-galactoside; diosmetin-7-O-glucoside; luteolin-7-O-6″-malonylglucoside; quercetin glycoside; diosmetin-7-O-glucuronide; trihydroxymethoxyflavone glucoside; acacetin 7-O-diglucoside; apigenin-7-O-6″-malonylglucoside; luteolin-7-O-6″-acetylglucoside; apigenin 7-O-6″-acetylglucoside; diosmetin-7-O-6″-malonylglucoside; diosmetin-7-O-6″-acetylglucoside; acacetin 7-O-rutinoside; luteolin; acacetin-7-O-galactoside; acacetin 7-O-glucuronide; acacetin-7-O-6″-malonylgactoside; apigenin; diosmetin; acacetin-7-O-6″-acetylgalactoside; acacetin-7-O-acetylgalactoside; acacetin-7-O-acetylgalactoside; acacetin-7-O-malonylacetylgalactoside; eupatorina or chrysosplenol; chrysosplentin or its isomer; and acacetin. The following hydroxycinnamoylquinic acids were found: 1-caffeyolquinic acid; 3-caffeyolquinic acid; caffeic acid 4-glucoside; chlorogenic acid; 4-caffeoylqunic acid; 5-sinapoylquinic acid; caffeic acid; 1,3-di-caffeoylquinic acid; di-caffeoylquinic acid glucoside; di-caffeoylquinic acid glucoside; 3,4-di-caffeoylquinic acid; 1,4-di-caffeoylquinic acid; 1,5-di-caffeoylquinic acid; 3,5-di-caffeoylquinic acid; 3-methoxyoxaloyl-1,5-di-caffeoylquinic acid; 4,5-di-caffeoylquinic acid; 4-caffeoyl-5-feruloylquinic acid; 4-caffeoyl-5-feruloylquinic acid isomer; and 3,4,5-tricaffeoylquinic acid.
Eight flavonoids vitexin-2-O-rhamnoside 0.10 mg/g, quercetin-3-galactoside 2.46 mg/g, luteolin-7-glucoside 50.59 mg/g, quercetin-3-glucoside 1.33 mg/g, quercitrin 21.38 mg/g, myricetin 2.13 mg/g, luteolin 5.22 mg/g, apigenin 0.70 mg/g and kaempferol 0.14 mg/g were identified in C. morifolium flowers (Sun et al. 2010). Fifty-eight volatiles were identified in the flowers: β-humulene 96.48 %, ledene oxide-(I) 52.96 %, cis–Z-α-bisabolene epoxide 36.84 %, 3,4-dihydro-2,2-dimethyl-2H-1-benzopyran 36.00 %, trans-limonene oxide 26.52 %, 2-methyl-5-(1-methylethenyl)-cyclohexanone 22.51 %, 2,6-dimethyl-1,3,6-heptatriene 19.24 %, 1,6-dibromo-hexane 18.79 %, β-elemene 16.64 %, bromo-cyclohexane 15.76 %, 1-(1,5-dimethyl-4-hexenyl)-4-methylbenzene 15.28 %, 3,3,6,6-tetraethyl-ricyclo[3.1.0.0(2,4)]hexane 15.25 %, 3-cyclohexene-1-methanol 13.29 %, 6-isopropenyl-4,8α-dimethyl-1,2,3,5,6,7,8,8α-octahydro-naphthalen-2-ol 12.41 %, caryophyllene 11.57 %, 1-tert-butyl-1,5-cyclooctadiene 11.49 %, 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one 10.53 %, eicosane 9.54 %, caryophyllene oxide 9.45 %, docosane 8.90 %, 5-(1,5-dimethyl-4-hexenyl)-2-methyl-1,3-cyclohexadiene 7.80 %, bicyclo[10.1.0]tridec-1-ene 7.54 %, isoaromadendrene epoxide 7.44 %, 1,5,9,13-tetradecatetraene 7.01 %, eudesma-4(14),11-diene 6.54 %, 1H-cyclopropa[α]naphthalene 6.53 %, heneicosane 6.35 %, cedrol 6.29 %, (1,1-dimethylpropyl)-benzene 6.08 %, camphene 5.85 %, longifolenaldehyde 5.81 %, 3-methyl-2-cyclohexen-1-one 5.19 %, 1,7,7-trimethyl-bicyclo[2.2.1]heptan-2-one 5.03 %, trans–Z-α-bisabolene epoxide 5.01 %, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)phenol 3.03 %, β-sesquiphellandrene 2.96 %, 2,3,3-trimethyl-1-butene 2.92 %, germacrene 2.83 %, 7,11-dimethyl-3-methylene-1,6,10-dodecatriene 2.72 %, 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethylidene)-cyclohexane 2.29 %, 3,5-dimethyl-2-ethyl-1,3-cyclopentadiene 2.21 %, cis-α-santalol 2.21 %, 3,4,4-trimethyl-2-cyclohexen-1-one 2.14 %, spathulenol 2.10 %, α-farnesol 2.10 %, borneol 1.88 %, 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, butyl octyl ester 1.75 %, 9,10-dehydro-isolongifolene 1.72 %, 1,3,3-trimethylcyclohex-1-ene-4-carboxaldehyde 1.56 %, α-farnesene 1.48 %, limonene 1.41 %, 1,8-dimethyl-4-(1-methylethyl)-spiro[4.5]dec-8-en-7-one 1.27 %, 5,5-dimethyl-1-ethyl-1,3-cyclopentadiene 1.14 %, α-pinene 1.04 %, 4-bromo-2-methyl-1-butene 0.95 %, 4-methyl-1-(1-methylethyl)-3-cyclohexen-1-ol 0.80 %, 1-(1,4-dimethyl-3-cyclohexen-1-yl)-ethanone 0.64 % and 1,7,7-trimethyl-bicyclo[2.2.1]heptan-2-ol acetate 0.60 %.
The content of flavonoid and chlorogenic acid in C. morifolium flowers was the highest at 70 % of full blossom, the anthocyanin at 50 % and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity at 30 % (Liang et al. 2007). Differences were found in phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) and peroxidase (POD) content in the two cultivars; ‘huaidabaiju’ had 70 and 30 %, and ‘huaixiaobaiju’ had 50 and 50 %, respectively. From C. morifolium cultivars Zaogongju, Wangongju, Huangyaoju, Chuju, Xiaoboju and Daboju, 75, 54, 78, 50, 53 and 43 components were identified, which were composed of 85.67, 82.80, 81.38, 73.22, 71.51 and 72.87 % of the total flower essential oil, respectively (Wang et al. 2008b). Monoterpenoid compounds were more abundant than sesquiterpenoid compounds in the juhua cvs Zaogongju, Wangongju, Huangyaoju, Xiaoboju and Daboju except for Chuju. There was no difference in the constituents of essential oil of Zaogongju and Wangongju; verbenyl acetate was the main chemical constituent and comprised 32.10 and 37.85 % of the total essential oil, respectively. (1R)-camphor and bisabolol oxide A were the predominant constituents in Huangyaoju, comprising 28.70 and 12.58 % of the total essential oil, respectively. β-selinene and borneol were the major constituents in Chuju, comprising 17.85 and 12.84 % of the total essential oil, respectively. Eucalyptol (21.33 %) was the major constituent in Xiaoboju. Verbene oxides and chrysanthenone comprised 25.32 and 8.26 % of the total essential oil, respectively, in the Daboju. The common constituents in the six cultivars of Juhua produced in Anhui province of China were camphene, borneol, bornyl acetate, (1R)-camphor, (−)-4-terpineol, α-terpineol, eucalyptol, cis-caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, juniper camphor, β-sesquiphellandrene, α-curcumene and β-farnesene. Chlorogenic acids, three p-coumaroylquinic acids, three feruloylquinic acids, four caffeoylquinic acids, six dicaffeoylquinic acids and two tricaffeoylquinic acids were detected, in herbal chrysanthemum samples (Clifford et al. 2007). Minor components such as five caffeoyl-hexose esters and caffeic acid-4-β-d-glucose, eight caffeoylquinic acid glycosides and 16 dicaffeoylquinic acid glycosides were also present. Succinic acid-containing chlorogenic acids and chlorogenic acids based on epi-quinic acid, previously reported in Chrysanthemum spp., were not detected in the samples.
Three unsaturated fatty acid isobutylamides, N-isobutyl-2E,4E,10E,12Z-tetradecatetraen-8-ynamide (1), N-isobutyl-2E,4E,12Z-tetradecatrien-8,10-diynamide (2) and N-isobutyl-2E,4E,12E-tetradecatrien-8,10-diynamide (3), were isolated from the leaves and flowers of C. morifolium (Tsao et al. 2003). The concentration of compound 1 in chrysanthemum varieties was positively correlated with host-plant resistance against the western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis. Chlorogenic acid (5-O-caffeoylquinic acid); 2,3,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid; and “3,3′,4′,5-trihydroxyflavanone-7-O-glucuronide (eriodictyol-7-O-glucuronide) were isolated from the leaves (Beninger et al. 2004).
Aribaud and Martin-Tanguy (1994a) found that ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) regulated the polyamine putrescine biosynthesis during floral initiation and floral development. Spermidine conjugates were predominant during floral initiation, whereas free amines did not accumulate to any significant extent. Different associations of amides were observed during floral initiation as compared with the reproductive phase. 3,4-Dimethoxyphenethylamine conjugates (water-insoluble compounds) were the predominant amine conjugates observed during flower development. Their results suggested that ODC and polyamine conjugates were involved in regulating floral initiation in Chrysanthemum morifolium. They also found that in fertile plants (C. morifolium v. Epidote), spermidine conjugates were predominant during floral initiation whereas in male-sterile plants (C. morifolium v. Jericho), only putrescine conjugates were detected (Aribaud and Martin-Tanguy 1994b). In both cases, ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) is involved in regulating floral initiation in normal and male-sterile plants. Huh et al. (2005) found that axillary floral bud formation and polyamine contents of nonbranching chrysanthemum were influenced by temperature. They found out that not only low temperature but also the excessively high temperature of 38 °C induced axillary bud formation. Viable axillary buds decreased remarkably at 30 and 34 °C. Exposure to 38 °C increased the putrescine contents and resulted in high putrescine/(spermidine + spermine) ratio as 22 and 26 °C. Temperature of 30 and 34 °C lowered putrescine/(spermidine + spermine) ratio. Results further showed that not polyamine contents but polyamine ratio (putrescine/spermidine + spermine) or transformation of putrescine to spermidine and spermine may be involved in the axillary bud formation in nonbranching C. morifolium.
C. morifolium especially the flowers have been reported to contain many phenolic compounds such as flavonoids and hydroxycinnamoylquinic acids, many of which possess a diverse array of biological characteristics such as radical scavenging and antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antivirus, anti-HIV, antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic, anti-hepatotoxic and antiaging activities that are considered beneficial to human health (Lin and Harnley 2010).
Antioxidant Activity
Chrysanthemum flower extract was found to be rich in flavones which afforded good antioxidative activity in scavenging hydroxyl and oxygen radicals (Zhang et al. 2000). The aqueous chrysanthemum flower extract inhibited the production of free radicals and lipid peroxidation induced by free radicals in the heart and cerebral homogenate of rats (Wang et al. 2001).
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