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Canberra, Aust Capital Terr, Australia
Scientific Name
Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers.
Synonyms
Aeschynomene coccinea L. f., Aeschynomene grandiflora (L.) L., Agati coccinea (L. f.) Desv., Agati grandiflora (L.) Desv., Coronilla coccinea (L. f.) Willd., Coronilla grandiflora (L.) Willd., Coronilla grandiflora Boiss, Dolichos arborescens G. Don, Dolichos arboreus Forssk., Emerus grandiflorus (L.) Kuntze, Resupinaria grandiflora (L.) Raf., Robinia grandiflora L., Sesban coccinea (L.f.) Poir, Sesban grandiflora (L.) Poir., Sesban grandiflorus Poir., Sesbania coccinea (L.f.) Pers.
Family
Fabaceae, also placed in Papilionaceae
Common/English Names
Agathi, Agati Sesbania, August Flower, Australian Corkwood Tree, Corkwood Tree, Flamingo Bill, Grandiflora, Hummingbird Tree, Scarlet Wisteria Tree, Sesban, Sesbania, Swamp Pea, Tiger Tongue, Vegetable-Hummingbird, West Indian Pea, West Indian Pea Tree, White Dragon Tree
Vernacular Names
Arabic: Saysabān
Burmese: Pauk-Pan, Pauk-Pan-Hpyu
Caribbean: Colibri Vegetal, Fleur Papillon
Chamorro: Caturay, Katurai
Chinese: Ta-Hua, Tien-Tsing, Da Hua Tian Jing, Mu Tian Jing
Creole Patois: Pwa Valet, Pwa Valye
Czech: Sesbánie Velkokvětá
Dutch: Agati
French: Agati A Grandes Fleurs, Fagotier, Colbri Vegetal, Fagotier, Fleur Papillon, Papillon, Pois Valette, Pois Vallier, Pois Valliere
German: Kolibribaum, Turibaum, Scharlach Baumwisterie
Hawaiian: Ohai Ke‘Oke‘O
India: Bak Phool (Assamese), Agasthi, Agati, Agusta, Bagphal, Bak, Bak, Bak Phool, Bake, Bakphool, Buko (Bengali), Agathio (Gujarati), Agasati, Agast, Agasti, Agastoya, Agust, Agusta, Bak, Balmota, Basma, Basna, Chogache, Gaach-Munga, Hadaga, Hadga, Hathia, Hathya, Hatiya, Jalt, Jayanti, Jhijan (Hindi), Agace, Agache, Agaci, Agase, Agasemara, Agashi, Agasi, Agastya, Bakapushpa, Chinna Daare, Chogache, Kempagase (Kannada), Agati, Agatti, Agaty, Akatti, Argati, Argatti, Athi, Atti (Malayalam), Houwaimal (Manipuri), Agasta, Agastha, Agasthi, Agasthiya, Agasti, Agastiya, Agathi, Agati, Agosto, Akatti, Chopchini, Haadga, Hatga, Jainti, Shevari, Shewari, Sirimonta (Marathi), Vranari (Oriya), Agasthya, Agasta, Agasti, Agastih, Agastivaka, Agastya, Agastyah, Agati, Anari, Buka, Dirghaphalaka, Dirghashimbi, Kanali, Kharadhvansi, Kumbhayoni, Kumbhayonih, Kusuma, Muni, Munidruma, Munidrumah, Munipriya, Munipushpa, Munitaru, Pavitra, Raktapushpa, Shighrapushpa, Sthulapushpa, Surapriya, Vaka, Vakrapushpa, Vakrapuspa, Vakrapuspah, Vamari, Vangasena, Vangasenah, Vranapaha, Vranari (Sanskrit), Acaiyam, Accam, Acci, Acham, Acokam, Acotakatti, Agathi, Agathi Keerai, Agaththi, Agati, Agatti, Akacam, Akaci, Akaddi, Akatti, Akattikkirai, Alakiyal, Alakucivappi, Alakucivappimaram, Ampalacai, Ampalakaimaram, Anali, Aracamiyam, Argati, Arokkiyamatar, Arpakaimaram, Arrokkiyamatar, Athi, Attikkirai, Avappittaniti, Avappittanti, Cakanpanni, Cantirantankacci, Cayanti, Cenkutamaram, Cevvakatti, Cevvakattimaram, Chittakathi, Civappakatti, Civappi, Iyaktam, Kacikavakatti, Kakanaman, Karikam, Karikamaram, Kariram, Karunchempa, Kilimukkumaram, Kilimukkumram, Kiraiyakattimaram, Kopavairini, Kotikkalmaram, Kunali, Kunkumapperikamaram, Malaiyinmunimaram, Malaiyinmunivam, Malaiyinmunivanmara, Malaiyinmunivanmaram, Mayilmunimaram, Mayilmunivam, Mayilmunivan, Mulakariyam, Mulakiyam, Muni, Munipattiri, Munippuntu, Munitalam, Munittorumam, Munitturumam, Mutanki, Nattakatti, Paluppuccarruccattukkati, Pantukam, Pantukamaram, Pattiyamuriccan, Pavalaakatti, Pavalavakatti, Pavalavakattimaram, Peragatti, Pintaputpam, Piraimalar, Pocaki, Pocakimaram, Pocam, Pukal, Pukalmaram, Sevvagatti, Tanavakamaram, Tetcanamuli, Tetcanamurtti, Tirakkappalakam, Tirkkappalakam, Turucu, Tuvatacipattiri, Tuvatecipattiri, Ullulattitam, Uppi, Utumparam, Vaka, Vakai, Vanitam, Vankacenakam, Vellakatti, Vinpakam, Vinpakavakatti, Vintai, Vittari, Vittaru, Vitteri, Vittineruppu, Vittutti, Vittuttimaram, Yatakam (Tamil), Agasi, Agathi, Agise, Agisi, Anaga, Aneesay, Anisay, Aushika, Avasinara, Avesi, Avise, Avisey, Avishi, Avisi, Bakapushpam, Bakku-Pushapamu, Erraagasi, Erraavisi, Erragise, Ettagise, Patta, Suka Nasam, Sukanaasamu, Sukanasamu, Tella-Suiminta, Tellaavesi, Tellaavisi, Tellayavise, Thellayavise, Yerraavesi (Telugu), Agast (Urdu)
Indonesia: Bunga Turi, Kembang Turi (Flowers), Daun Turi, Turi, Tuwi, Toroy (Leaves), Turi Bang (Javanese for red-flowered form), Turi Berem (Sundanese for red-flowered form), Turi Putih (Javanese for white-flowered form), Turi Bodas (Sundanese for white-flowered form), Toroj (Madurese)
Japanese: Agachi, Shiro-Gochou
Khmer: Ângkiëdèi, Pka Angkea Dey
Korean: A Ga Ti, We-Seu-Teu-In-Di-An-Kong-Na-Mu
Laotian: Kh’ê: Kha:W
Malaysia: Turi, Geti, Kacang Turi, Petai Belalang, Sesban, Sesban Getih
Nepali: Agasti
Palauan: Katurai
Persian: Sīsabān
Philippines: Diana (Bagobo), Katurai, Katudai (Ibanag), Katudia, Katodai (Iloko), Gauai-Gauai (Panay Bisaya), Katurai (Pangasingan), Kambang-Turi (Sulu), Katuray, Katurai
Portuguese: Agasto, Sesbânia
Russian: Sesbania Krupnotsvetkovaia
Samoan: Sepania
Slovakian: Sezbánia Veľkokvetá
Spanish: Baculo, Cresta De Gallo, Gallito, Paloma, Pico De Flamenco, Zapaton Blanco
Sri Lanka: Katurumurunga Kolle (Leaves, Sinhalese), Katurumurunga Mala (Flowers, Sinhalese), Attikkirai (Tamil)
Tahitian: Afai, Ofai, Ouai, Oufai
Thailand: Khae Daeng (Chiang Mai), Dok Khae Baan, Kae-Ban, Khae, Ton Kae (Central)
Tibetan: A Ga Sta
Vietnamese: So Đũa
Origin/Distribution
The species is native to South Asia and Southeast Asia with possibly Indonesia as the centre of diversity. It is closely related to the Australian species, Sesbania formosa. The species is now distributed pantropically in Africa, Central America, Florida, Hawaii, Southwest China, Northern Australia, the Caribbean and the Pacific Islands.
Agroecology
The tree is found in open fields, near roadsides or waterways, and dikes between the rice fields from sea level to occasionally 1,200 m altitude in its native range. The plant is cultivated in orchards or as backyard trees in remote areas as an ornamental but has a tendency to naturalize. It is adaptable to tropical conditions in areas with mean annual temperatures of 22–30 °C and mean annual rainfall of 2,000–4,000 mm. It prefers a bimodal rainfall distribution, with rapid growth in the wet, but is drought tolerant withstanding extended dry periods of up to 9 months. It is frost sensitive and is intolerant of protracted period of low cool temperatures. It grows on a wide range of soils including alkaline, saline, acid soils with pH down to 4.5, heavy clays and poorly drained and low fertility soils. It is tolerant to brief periods of flooding.
Edible Plant Parts and Uses
In Asia, young leaves, flowers and young pods are used in curries and soups, lightly fried, steamed or boiled (Burkill 1966; Ochse and Bakhuizen van den Brink 1980; JIRCAS 2010). The young, tender pods are cooked similarly to other green beans. The leaves and young tender pods are used as flavouring items in the cuisine of South India (Yadav et al. 2010). In Sri Lanka, the leaves are sometimes added to ‘sodhi’, a widely eaten, thin coconut gravy. In India, the tender leaves, young green pods and flowers are eaten alone as a vegetable or mixed into curries or salads. The young leaves are chopped and sautéed, perhaps with spices, onion or coconut milk. Seeds are high in protein (33.7 %) and are eaten as famine food in India.
In India, flowers may be dipped in batter and fried in butter. Flowers after removal of the bitter stamens are eaten as vegetables raw or cooked in Southeast Asian countries, namely, Thailand, Laos, Kampuchea, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Ilocos region of the Philippines and also in Bihar, India. In Thailand young shoots and leaves are blanched and eaten with chilli paste ‘nam prik kapi’ or ‘nam prik plaa raa’ (JIRCAS 2010). Young flowers are used as an ingredient in sour curry soups such as ‘kaeng som’. The flowers are also consumed raw. They are also fried with pork or shrimps or mixed with flour and fried. In the Philippines, unopened white flowers are a common vegetable, steamed or cooked in soups and stews after removal of the stamen and calyx (Stuart 2012). In Vietnam the flowers are used in soups or stir-fry with meat (Tanaka and Nguyen 2007). In Peninsular Malaysia, the leaves are cooked in coconut milk (lemak) or curry (Saidin 2000), and the flowers are commonly used raw in ‘ulam’ (Mackeen et al. 1997) or cooked as vegetables as are the young pods (Saidin 2000). In Sarawak, one popular dish is ‘duan turi’ cooked in coconut gravy with shrimp paste, dried pounded shrimps, pumpkin and chillies (Voon et al. 1988). In Indonesia young leaves and pods eaten as sepan (steamed vegetables) and the flowers are used for making sayor or lalab. ‘Petjel’ (sauce) can be made of the flowers by adding ‘sambal kacang’ (Ochse and Bakhuizen van den Brink 1980).
Botany
A small, open-branched, unarmed, perennial tree 5–9 m tall with drooping branches (Plates 1 and 2) and 30 cm trunk with heavily nodulated roots. Leaves glaucous, deep green, pinnately compound to 30 cm long with 20–40 pairs of opposite to alternate leaflets (Plates 1, 2, 3 and 4). Leaflet oblong, to elliptical, obtuse apex, about 2–3 cm long. Inflorescences arise from leaf axils in lax racemes of 2–4 flowers, bracts lanceolate, deciduous, 3–6 mm long. Flowers white or deep pink to red, quite large, 7–9 cm long, corolla with standard and wings, staminal tube and glabrous ovary and style (Plates 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6). Pods pendent, slender, long, 30–55 cm, cylindric, green, indehiscent containing 15–50 seeds. Seed sub-reniform, 6.5 mm × 5 mm × 3 mm, dark brown.
Plate 1
Leaves, fruit and white flowers
Plate 2
Leaves, fruit and red flowers
Plate 3
Close view of flower and leaf
Plate 4
Tender, leafy shoot used as vegetable
Plate 5
Red and white flowers sold as vegetables
Plate 6
Mass of white flowers sold in local markets as vegetables
Nutritive/Medicinal Properties
Leaf Nutrients and Phytochemicals
The leaves and flowers of agathi (Sesbania grandiflora) were found to be rich in minerals and vitamins. The leaves were reported to contain per 100 g edible portion, 8.4 g protein, 11.8 g carbohydrate, 3.1 g fat, 2.2 g fibre, 5,400 μg carotene, 169 mg vitamin C, 0.21 mg vitamin B1, 0.09 mg vitamin B2, 1.2 mg niacin, 3.1 g minerals, 1,130 mg Ca, 80 mg P and 3.9 mg Fe (Devi et al. 2007). Duke (1983) reported that per 100 g ZMB (zero-moisture basis), the leaves contained 321 cal, 36.3 g protein, 7.5 g fat, 47.1 g carbohydrate, 9.2 g fibre, 9.2 g ash, 1,684 mg Ca, 258 mg P, 21 mg Na, 2,005 mg K, 25,679 μg β-carotene equivalent, 1.00 mg thiamine, 1.04 mg riboflavin, 9.17 mg niacin and 242 mg ascorbic acid. The flowers contain per 100 g ZMB, 345 cal, 14.5 g protein, 3.6 g fat, 77.3 g carbohydrate, 10.9 g fibre, 4.5 g ash, 145 mg Ca, 290 mg P, 5.4 mg Fe, 291 mg Na, 1,400 mg K, 636 μg β-carotene equivalent, 0.91 mg thiamine, 0.72 mg riboflavin, 14.54 mg niacin and 473 mg ascorbic acid (Duke 1983). Voon et al., (1988) reported the leaves to contain per100 g edible portion energy 85 kcal, moisture 78.2 %, protein 6 g, fat 0.9 g, carbohydrate 10.9 g, fibre 2.1 g, ash 2 g, P 2 mg, K, 308 mg, Ca 96 mg, Mg 65 mg, Fe 164 μg, Mn 33 μg, Cu 33 μg, Zn 6.6 mg and vitamin C 15.5 mg.
Physicochemical studies of the leaves revealed loss on drying (0.6 %), total ash (10.75 %), acid-insoluble ash (0.045 %), alcohol-soluble extractive (21.7 %) and water-soluble extractive (30.72 %) (Yadav et al. 2010). The leaves were reported to contain alkaloids, saponins, phenols and proteins.
Flower Phytochemicals
The flowers were reported to contain ZMB per 100 g, 345 cal, 14.5 g protein, 3.6 g fat, 77.3 g carbohydrate, 10.9 g fibre, 4.5 g ash, 145 mg Ca, 290 mg P, 5.4 mg Fe, 291 mg Na, 1,400 mg K, 636 μg β-carotene equivalent, 0.91 mg thiamine, 0.72 mg riboflavin, 14.54 mg niacin and 473 mg ascorbic acid (Duke 1983).
Raj and Nagarajan (1984) isolated kaempferol-3-rutinosides from the flowers. Kalyanagurunathan et al. (1985) isolated three active compounds: methyl ester of oleanolic acid, nonacosan-6-one and flavonol glycosides type of molecules, kaempferol-3-rutinosides from the flowers. The flowers were found to have various chemical compounds that could be grouped as flavonoid, anthraquinone, and glycoside (Krasaekoopt and Kongkarnchanatip 2005). Red agati petal (rose-pink to red) of 3 cm length was found to have the highest total anthocyanin content (455 μg/g FW) while hypocotyl of 7-day-old, light-grown Red Agati seedlings also had high anthocyanin content (290 μg/g FW) (Bodhipadma et al. 2006). It was concluded that the hypocotyl of light-grown Red Agati seedlings would be an attractive alternative source of anthocyanins to the petal as the seedlings can be raised and be made available throughout the year.
Yang et al. (2008) found the edible red and white flowers to contain 10.6 %, 10.6 % DM, and 20.4, 22.4 mg/100 g FW of total flavonoids, respectively. The red flower contained (per 100 g FW) 10.1 mg quercetin and 10.3 mg kaempferol while the white flowers contained only 22.4 mg kaempferol and no quercetin. It was found that 70 % alcoholic extract of flowers of Sesbania grandiflora had 64.0 mg/g of total phenol equivalent to catechol and 28.80 mg/g of flavonoid content equivalent to quercetin (Shanmukha et al. 2012). The methanol flower extract was found to contain abundant flavonoids, and tannins, alkaloids and anthraquinone glycosides, triterpenes, gums and mucilage (Arthanari et al. 2012). The total polyphenolic content in the acetone flower extract was found to be 49.1 μg/mg and the flavonoid content was 12.86 μg/mg (Munde-Wagh et al. 2012).
Seed Phytochemicals
Seeds (ZMB) were reported to contain 36.5 % CP, 7.4 % fat, 51.6 % total carbohydrate and 4.5 % ash (Duke 1983). The seed oil contains 12.3 % palmitic, 5.2 % stearic, 26.2 % oleic and 53.4 % linoleic acids. The seed testa, which constitutes 20 % of the seed, contains 5.2 % moisture, 1.3 % ash, 0.8 % fat, 2.7 % crude fibre, 0.1 % free reducing sugars, 1.4 % sucrose, 2.8 % nitrogen, 6.3 % pentosans and 65.4 % carbohydrates.
The seed was found to have a galactomannan, with a d-galactose-d-mannose ratio of 1:2 (Srivastava et al. 1968). Methylation of the polysaccharide, followed by hydrolysis, afforded 2,3,4,6-tetra-O-methyl-d-galactose, 2,3,6-tri-O-methyl–d-mannose and 2,3-di-O-methyl-d-mannose in equimolecular proportions. Periodate oxidation of the polysaccharide, followed by reduction and hydrolysis, gave glycerol (1 mol) and erythritol (1.8 mol). The seeds were found to contain kaempferol 3,7-diglucoside, (+)-leucocyanidin and cyanidin 3-glucoside (Andal and Sulochana 1986). The seeds were reported to contain alkaloids, a cyanoglucoside and canavanine (Wenas 1989).
The seed oil of S. grandiflora was found to contain (mg/100 g) 258.21 mg total tocopherol, 47.04 mg α-tocopherol, 2.09 mg β-tocopherol, 201.06 γ-tocopherol and 8.02 mg δ-tocopherol, and 74.06 % β-sitosterol, 9.21 % campesterol, 2.06 % Δ7-avenasterol, 3.02 % stigmasterol, 7.65 %Δ5-avenasterol and 4 % unidentified sterol (Shareef et al. 2012).
Root Phytochemicals
The roots were found to contain indole acetic acid (IAA), gibberellic acid-like substances (GAs), cytokinin-like substances (CKs) and abscisic acid-like substances (ABA) (Bhowmick and Basu 1984). A steroid was isolated from the roots (Mandey et al. 2003). Three isoflavonoids, isovestitol, medicarpin and sativan, along with another known compound, betulinic acid, were isolated from the root (Hasan et al. 2012). A new biaryl natural product, l,l′-binaphthalene-2,2′-diol, and two known isoflavonoids, isovestitol and sativan, were isolated from the roots (Noviany et al. 2012).
Gum exudates from S. grandiflora were found to compose of strongly dextrorotatory, acidic arabinogalactans (Anderson and Wang 1990).
Antioxidant Activity
Studies by Ramesh and Begum (2008) suggested that supplementation with aqueous suspension of S. grandiflora reversed the cigarette smoke-induced oxidative damage in rats through its antioxidant potential. Cigarette smoke-enhanced levels of protein carbonyl and activities of cytochrome P450, NADPH oxidase and xanthine oxidase and cigarette smoked-induced decreases in levels of total thiol, protein thiol, non-protein thiol, nucleic acids and tissue protein in the lung, liver, kidney and heart of cigarette smoke-exposed rats were altered and normalized by the extract. The results provided further support for the traditional use of S. grandiflora in the treatment of smoke-related diseases. The methanol flower extract of S. grandiflora exhibited maximum radical scavenging activity in vitro on nitric oxide, superoxide and hydroxyl radical, and these values were significantly higher over positive standards butylated hydroxyanisole and butylated hydroxytoluene (Loganayaki et al. 2012).
Antidiabetic Activity
Two alpha-glucosidase inhibitors named SGF60 and SGF90 were isolated from the Sesbania grandiflora flowers (Boonmee et al. 2007). SGF90 matched a beta-glucosidase from Arabidopsis thaliana. SGF60 was similar to p27SJ, a protein from Hypericum perforatum and found to suppress HIV-1 gene expression.
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