Drugs interact with their specific target, which may be coupled to a second messenger and/or effector system, leading to a cellular response. Pharmacological targets Receptors Receptors are proteins that are…

Organelles (Figure 3.1) are most commonly defined as specialised structures within a cell that are enclosed by a membrane. The most prominent organelle of eukaryotic cells is the nucleus, which…

A cell is the smallest functional and structural unit capable of replicating itself. As such, a cell is considered the basic unit of life. The boundary of a cell is…

Carbohydrates (CHOs) are probably the most abundant organic molecules in living organisms and serve a variety of roles. Carbohydrates provide about 55% of dietary calories for a healthy human, so…

Proteins are polymers of the 20 common L-amino acids and constitute about 16% of the body weight of the average adult. Proteins have a wide range of functions in the…

Cell membranes Cell membranes are large cellular structures that constitute the boundary of a cell or a cell organelle. In contrast to proteins or nucleic acids, membranes are not made…

Lipids are defined as organic molecules that share the property of being water insoluble but are highly soluble in organic solvents. They are structurally diverse and have many different functions,…