Basicmedical Key

Diseases that involve tissue damage as a consequence of inappropriate adaptive immune responses can be categorised on the basis of either the source of the stimulating antigens (allergy or autoimmunity)…

The motor system is part of the central nervous system (CNS) and controls voluntary movements. Multiple brain regions work together to ensure coordinated motor control utilising a series of neurones…

The central nervous system (CNS) allows the coordination and integration of neural signals that control activities of the body, such as respiration. The CNS is also involved in higher cognitive…

Reproductive physiology is tightly regulated via hormonal control by the steroidal sex hormones. The process starts with puberty at around 10–13 years in females and slightly later in males. In…

Anatomy The thyroid gland is located anterior to the cricoid cartilage in the anterior neck, composed of two lobes connected by a branch of tissue known as the isthmus (Figure…

Salivation The process of digestion starts in the mouth with mastication, in which the physical breakdown of food is combined with saliva. Salivation occurs as saliva is produced by the…

The urinary bladder is a muscular organ in the pelvis that stores normally sterile urine prior to micturition. In the healthy adult, the volume of the bladder is typically 300–500…

Water constitutes approximately 60% of the healthy human body, with the water in the intracellular and extracellular (interstitial fluid and blood plasma) compartments in osmotic equilibrium. Sodium and chloride ions…

Each nephron consists of a cup-shaped Bowman’s capsule surrounding the glomerulus, which then passes to the proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, with the distal convoluted tubule draining into…

The renal system is involved in the removal of waste products, excess water and salts from the blood in the form of urine. It controls the level of water and…