PULSE QUALITIES
FEELING AND IDENTIFYING THE PULSE QUALITY
THE EIGHT BASIC PULSE QUALITIES
PULSES WITH IRREGULARITIES OF RATE OR RHYTHM
THREE NON-TRADITIONAL PULSE QUALITIES
CLASSIFICATION OF PULSE QUALITIES
The eight basic groups of pulse qualities
The different aspects for the Classification of pulse qualities
Classification of pulse qualities according to Qi, Blood and Body Fluids patterns
Classification of pulse qualities according to the Eight Principles
Classification of pulse qualities according to the Six Stages patterns
Classification of pulse qualities according to the Four Levels patterns
Classification of pulse qualities according to the Triple Burner patterns
INTRODUCTION
The pulse ‘qualities’ described in Chinese books over the centuries have varied but they have been standardized today into 28 or 29 qualities. In theory, there is no special reason why we should be restricted to using only those terms; for example, there is no ‘Hard’ pulse quality, but this is a term that often comes to mind when feeling a particular pulse. However, it is important to train oneself to use the set terminology of pulse qualities in order to establish a common ground of communication among practitioners and between teachers and students; for example, a practitioner or student might describe a pulse as ‘squidgy’ in his or her own terminology (in fact, the term ‘squidgy’ describes the Soggy pulse quite well) but this would not be much use to other practitioners or students.
It cannot be stressed strongly enough that the pulse qualities, with their description and clinical significance, should be memorized. Only by memorizing the pulse qualities can students then communicate with the clinical teacher; only when both the students and the clinical teacher are clear as to what a Wiry pulse feels like and means, can they communicate with each other, and students correlate the theoretical description of a Wiry pulse with their own feeling of the pulse.
FEELING AND IDENTIFYING THE PULSE QUALITY
It should be stressed that the pulse ‘quality’ can be felt and identified only if we move the fingers constantly by ‘rolling’ them distally and proximally, ‘pushing’ them medially and laterally, and ‘pressing’ down and releasing upwards as described in the previous chapter. We cannot feel and identify the pulse quality if we keep the fingers absolutely still because the fingers need to feel, probe and explore the shape and size of the pulse and this can be done only by moving the fingers in all four directions around a given pulse position (i.e. distally, proximally, medially and laterally). For example, we can deduce that a pulse is Long or Short only if we gently roll the finger distally; we can deduce that a pulse is Slippery only if we feel ‘around’ it by moving the fingers medially and laterally; we can deduce that a pulse is Floating-Empty only if we press the fingers down and then release them to explore its depth.
The pulse qualities discussed are as illustrated in Table 50.1. The order in which I have arranged these 29 pulse qualities is different from that traditionally used in Chinese books. The first 8 qualities are the traditional, basic ones, that is, Floating, Deep, Slow, Rapid, Empty, Full, Slippery and Choppy. The other 21 qualities are arranged in three groups:
In addition to the above 29 traditional qualities, I shall also discuss three new qualities, mostly owed to Dr Shen’ experience: Irregular, Stagnant, and Sad.
For each pulse quality, I shall discuss the following:
I have paired the eight basic qualities (Floating/Deep, Slow/Rapid, Full/Empty and Slippery/Choppy) each with its opposite. These pulse qualities are considered to be the eight basic ones because they correspond closely to the eight principles; that is, Floating and Deep correspond to Exterior and Interior, Slow and Rapid to Cold and Heat, and Full and Empty to Excess and deficiency. The Slippery and Choppy qualities are added to this group of eight basic qualities because they are extremely common, the former indicating Phlegm or Dampness and the latter Blood deficiency. These two pulse qualities are paired also because to a certain extent they are at different ends of a scale in terms of how they feel under the finger.
Box 50.1 summarizes the eight basic pulse qualities.
THE EIGHT BASIC PULSE QUALITIES
Floating
Pulse description
This pulse is felt on very light pressure; in extreme cases it is felt with no pressure at all. As its name implies, it has a ‘floating’ quality and it is relatively resistant to pressure. We can think of a large plank of wood in water: we can push it down with some resistance but it comes back up. In other words, there is a difference between a pulse that is felt clearly on the surface (as it should be if Yang-Qi is normal) and a pulse that is Floating: the Floating pulse is more resistant to finger pressure than a pulse that is normal at the superficial level. Especially in summertime, it is normal for the pulse to be relatively more superficial but that does not make it a Floating pulse. Bearing in mind the three levels of the pulse as discussed in the previous chapter, the Floating pulse is felt very clearly (and somewhat excessively) on the superficial level, which corresponds to the Qi and Yang energies.
The traditional description of a Floating pulse was like ‘feathers being ruffled by the wind’. The ‘Classic of Difficulties’ in Chapter 18 says: ‘When the pulse is Floating, it is felt moving above the muscle.’1
Clinical significance
Generally speaking, the Floating pulse indicates the presence of a pathogenic factor on the Exterior of the body: it is therefore associated with exterior symptoms caused by invasion of Wind. Indeed, the presence of aversion to cold, fever (or being hot to the touch) and a Floating pulse is enough to diagnose an invasion of an external pathogenic factor. Thus the Floating pulse is one of the main clinical signs of invasion of Wind. In fact, the ‘Discussion of Cold-induced Diseases’ says: ‘A Floating pulse, stiffness and pain of the neck and aversion to cold are signs of the Greater-Yang pattern [invasion of Wind].’2
The reason that the pulse becomes floating in invasions of external pathogenic factors is that when the body is attacked by external evils the Defensive Qi is attracted to the surface of the body and the space between skin and muscles, to fight the external pathogenic factors. Thus, the increased Yang-Qi on the surface of the body is reflected in a more Yang pulse (i.e. Floating). However, if the patient has weak Defensive Qi and does not react well to the invasion of pathogenic factors, the pulse may not be Floating.
The Floating pulse is not found only in exterior conditions but also occurs in interior ones. I shall therefore discuss the clinical significance of the Floating pulse, distinguishing between exterior and interior conditions; this will be done under ‘Combinations’.
Under the following conditions, a Floating pulse is normal and does not indicate a pathology:
Box 50.2 summarizes the clinical significance of a Floating pulse.
Combinations
The clinical significance of the Floating pulse combined with other pulses must be differentiated according to interior or exterior conditions.
Exterior conditions
In exterior conditions the pulse should be Floating by definition and is clearly accompanied by exterior symptoms such as an aversion to cold and the presence of fever. The Floating pulse of exterior conditions can be combined with other qualities as follows.
Floating-Full
This indicates an External-Full condition, found when the patient has a strong Defensive Qi.
Floating-Weak
This indicates an External-Empty condition, found when the patient has a weak Defensive Qi that does not react properly to the invasion of external pathogenic factors.
Floating-Empty
This indicates an invasion of Summer-Heat; it is more floating than the Floating-Empty pulse from Yin deficiency.
Interior conditions
The Floating pulse can be found in interior conditions and it is, indeed, relatively common. In interior conditions, exterior symptoms such as an aversion to cold and the presence of fever are obviously absent. Thus, if we feel a Floating pulse, we should first establish whether the patient’ condition is exterior or interior; this is easily done because an exterior condition presents with an acute onset of aversion to cold, fever, body aches, sore throat, etc. In the absence of such symptoms the condition is interior and we must therefore interpret the significance of the Floating pulse differently.
The Floating quality of the pulse in interior conditions is not as pronounced as in exterior ones; in exterior conditions the pulse is clearly floating like a piece of wood in water as described above and is rather resistant to pressure, whereas in interior conditions the Floating quality of the pulse is less pronounced and is not so resistant to pressure.
A Floating pulse in an interior condition associated with an emptiness at the deep level of the pulse generally indicates a potentially serious problem often with severe Blood, Yin or Essence deficiency. Thus, a relatively Floating pulse that is Empty at the deep level in interior conditions may be associated with anaemia, chronic asthma, cirrhosis of the liver or cancer.
In addition, if the pulse is generally Weak and Deep but Floating in one particular position, there may be a problem (often organic rather than just energetic) with the organ corresponding to that position. For example, if the pulse is generally Weak and Deep in all positions except in the Heart position, where it is Floating, this may indicate heart disease.
The Floating pulse without strength in interior conditions may also be associated with prolapse of the stomach, in which case the pulse would also be Fine or Soggy.
Box 50.3 summarizes Western conditions that may be indicated by a Floating pulse.
If, in the absence of exterior symptoms, the pulse is Floating in all positions and, although it feels relatively hard on the superficial level, it disappears on pressure, this indicates that the person is overworking and pushing himself or herself to the limit; Dr Shen calls this condition ‘Qi wild’.
The clinical significance of the Floating pulse in interior conditions needs to be interpreted according to its combinations as follows.
Floating-Empty
This is a relatively common pulse in interior conditions and it indicates Yin deficiency. The Floating-Empty pulse is felt clearly and easily on the superficial level with very light pressure but, with a deeper pressure, the pulse feels empty. However, the Floating-Empty pulse is not as floating as the Floating pulse of exterior conditions.
The emptiness of the pulse at the deep level clearly reflects the deficiency of Yin. On the other hand, its floating quality at the superficial level reflects the rising Yang that derives from Yin deficiency. The Floating-Empty pulse reflects a relatively advanced condition of Yin deficiency when this gives rise to Floating Yang and possibly Empty-Heat. There are of course other pulse qualities that may indicate Yin deficiency such as Fine, Leather or Minute.
Floating-Choppy
This indicates severe Blood deficiency. What is the difference in the clinical significance between a Choppy pulse (which also indicates Blood deficiency) and a Floating-Choppy pulse? The latter indicates a more serious condition of Blood deficiency to such an extent that there is some Empty-Heat associated with it. Thus a woman with a Floating-Choppy pulse who is suffering from Blood deficiency may experience a feeling of heat in the face owing to Empty-Heat arising from Blood deficiency; this occurs only in women.
Floating-Hollow
This pulse appears after a haemorrhage. If it is also Rapid, however, it may indicate a forthcoming haemorrhage.
Floating-Rapid
This indicates a serious condition of severe exhaustion (Xu Lao). Of course, this applies only if the Floating-Rapid pulse occurs in interior conditions; in the presence of exterior symptoms, of course, it indicates an invasion of Wind-Heat and its clinical significance is therefore completely different.
Floating-Slippery-Rapid
This indicates long-term retention of Phlegm-Heat usually in the Lungs and is seen in chronic bronchitis.
Differentiation of similar pulse qualities
Soggy
The Soggy pulse is soft, without strength, difficult to feel at the superficial level and comparable with wet cotton wool, whereas the Floating pulse is easily felt at the superficial level and, although it decreases in strength when pressed harder, it is not as soft as the Soggy pulse. However, in interior conditions, the combined Floating-Weak pulse feels very similar to the Soggy pulse.
Deep
Pulse description
The Deep pulse can be felt only at the middle and deep levels, and especially the latter. It feels as if it were sunken underneath the muscle. It was also described in the old books as ‘a stone in the water’.
The depth at which the pulse is felt needs to be correlated with the body build of the patient; obviously, in obese patients, the pulse will be deeper. Thus the description of the Deep pulse is relative: what feels deep in a thin person may be normal in an obese person.
Clinical significance
This pulse quality indicates simply that the condition is an interior one. A further interpretation of the clinical significance of this pulse must be based on the differentiation between a Deep-Full and a Deep-Weak pulse.
Deep-Full
The Deep-Full pulse denotes the presence of a pathogenic factor in the Interior: this could be Cold, Heat, retention of food, stagnation of Qi or Blood, or accumulation of Water, depending on the combination with other pulse qualities.
Deep-Weak
The Deep-Weak pulse quality indicates Yang deficiency and it is very common.
Box 50.4 summarizes the clinical significance of a Deep pulse.
Combinations
Differentiation of similar pulses
Slow
Pulse description
In antiquity, the pulse was defined as slow in relation to the breathing cycles of the doctor. Thus a pulse was described as slow if it beat three times or less during the time it takes the doctor to breathe in and out, and as rapid if it beat five times or more during the same time. Obviously this method relies on the doctor’ being in good health: it would not work if the doctor suffered from asthma! Although this method is not used any longer, the concentration on one’ own breathing focuses and relaxes the doctor’ mind.
In modern times, the definition of a Slow or Rapid pulse is related to the pulse rate, which must be correlated to the age of the patient as follows:
Age | Rate |
0–1 | 120/140 |
1–3 | 110 |
4–10 | 84/90 |
11–15 | 78/80 |
16–35 | 76 |
36–50 | 72/70 |
50+ | 68 |
Any pulse rate below the above values is therefore a Slow pulse. Of course these values should not be adhered to rigidly: for example, a pulse rate of 74 b.p.m. in the 16—35 years age range would be only very slightly slow and have no clinical significance.
Clinical significance
A Slow pulse almost always indicates a Cold pattern. A different interpretation of a Slow pulse is that it denotes a problem in the Yin organs, as opposed to the Rapid pulse, which indicates a problem in the Yang organs; however, this is a broad generalization and it is not that clinically relevant. The ‘Classic of Difficulties’ in Chapter 9 says, ‘Rapid pulse indicates problems in the Yang organs, the Slow pulse problems in the Yin organs’.3
If the pulse is very slow, beating only twice for each breath cycle, it is called a Harmful pulse; if it beats only once per each breath, it is called the Destroyed pulse. Both these pulses, and especially the second one, indicate extreme depletion of the Internal Organs and are always associated with serious conditions.
Common Cold conditions manifesting with a Slow pulse
Common conditions which present with a Slow pulse are Stomach-Qi deficiency, Spleen-Yang deficiency, Heart-Yang deficiency, Kidney-Yang deficiency, deficiency of Gathering Qi (Zong Qi), Lung-Yang deficiency, Cold in the Stomach, Cold in the Uterus, abdominal masses, Cold-Phlegm and Damp-Cold.
A Slow pulse in chronic conditions may also indicate a deficiency of the Original Qi (Yuan Qi).
Box 50.5 summarizes the clinical significance of a Slow pulse.
Contradictory manifestations characterized by a Slow pulse and Heat symptoms
Very occasionally the Slow pulse occurs in combination with Heat symptoms; one of the reasons for this contradiction may be Damp-Heat as the Dampness itself may slow the pulse down.
Of course, a contradiction between a Slow pulse and Heat symptoms may simply be due to the coexistence of Cold and Heat patterns. For example, the combination of Kidney-Yang deficiency with Damp-Heat in the Bladder is relatively common. Another possible common combination is that of Kidney-Yang deficiency with Liver-Yang rising.
In menopausal women, a simultaneous deficiency of Kidney-Yin and Kidney-Yang is very common; if the Kidney-Yang deficiency is more pronounced the pulse may be Slow, but the Kidney-Yin deficiency will cause some Empty-Heat signs such as hot flushes and night sweating.
In the context of acute febrile diseases of the Warm-Disease type, the pulse can be Slow with the pattern of Damp-Heat at the Defensive-Qi level.
A Slow pulse with Heat symptoms may also indicate the condition of True Cold and False Heat, but this is quite rare. Yet another possible explanation of a Slow pulse with Heat symptoms is when the Heat is so intense that it obstructs the circulation of Qi and makes the pulse Slow; however, this is also quite rare.
Box 50.6 summarizes conditions with contradictory pulse and Heat symptoms.
The Slow pulse and jogging
Dr Shen relates a Slow pulse always to a Heart disharmony and poor circulation and, paradoxically, it is often seen in people who jog a lot: according to Dr Shen, excessive jogging (in his opinion more than 4 miles a day) leads to a dilation of the blood vessels which eventually becomes permanent and therefore slows the circulation down so that the pulse becomes Slow.
A Slow pulse is relatively common in Western patients who are joggers. Indeed, when we feel a Slow pulse, the first question we should ask is whether the patient jogs regularly. However, this is not necessarily a ‘false’ sign that should be discounted because it reflects the fact that excessive jogging injures Yang and leads to internal Cold. Therefore, although the Slow pulse should be taken into consideration, it is important also to bear in mind that it may be ‘disguising’ the presence of Heat.
Combinations
Slow-Deep
This indicates interior Cold (which may be Full or Empty according to whether the pulse is Full or Empty).
Slow-Choppy
This indicates Blood deficiency and interior Cold deriving from it. (A Slow-Slippery pulse indicates a pathology of Qi, whereas a Slow-Choppy pulse indicates a pathology of Blood.)
Slow-Deep-Weak
This may indicate Heart-Yang deficiency with symptoms of cold limbs, cold feeling, sweating and depression.
Rapid
Pulse description
The Rapid pulse has six beats or more to each breathing cycle; in modern clinical practice a pulse is defined as being Rapid when it beats more times than the values indicated under the Slow pulse above. For example, a pulse rate of 82 b.p.m. in the age range 16—35 indicates a Rapid pulse.
Clinical significance
The Rapid pulse always indicates Heat, which may be Full or Empty according to whether the pulse is Full or Empty. Typical examples of a pulse that is Rapid and of the Full-type are Rapid-Wiry, indicating Liver-Fire, or Rapid-Slippery, indicating Phlegm-Fire.
Examples of a pulse that is Rapid and of the Empty-type are Rapid-Fine, indicating Yin deficiency with Empty-Heat, or Rapid and Floating-Empty, also indicating Yin deficiency with Empty-Heat. It is important to stress that, in Yin deficiency, a Rapid pulse indicates the presence of Empty-Heat rather than Yin deficiency itself; this is manifested by the pulse being either Fine or Floating-Empty. This is equivalent to the situation in tongue diagnosis when, in Yin deficiency, a Red tongue body indicates the presence of Empty-Heat rather than the presence of Yin deficiency itself, which would be manifested by the absence of coating.
As mentioned above under the Slow pulse, the ‘Classic of Difficulties’ relates the Rapid pulse to problems of the Yang organs, and the Slow pulse to problems of the Yin organs. Of course, this is a broad generalization which suffers from exceptions (e.g. Liver-Fire may manifest with a Rapid pulse).
Common conditions which present with a Rapid pulse include Stomach-Heat, Heat in the Intestines, Lung-Heat, Liver-Fire, Heart-Fire, Yin deficiency with Empty-Heat, Phlegm-Heat, Damp-Heat and invasion of Wind-Heat. The Rapid pulse is also seen in the Lilium Syndrome described in Chapter 3 of the ‘Synopsis of Prescriptions from the Golden Cabinet’.4
Box 50.7 summarizes the common clinical manifestations of a Rapid pulse.
In fevers, whether of internal or external origin, the pulse should be Rapid; if it is not, this is a serious sign.
However, there are a few situations when a Rapid pulse does not indicate Heat because the clinical manifestations do not point to Heat. When we feel a Rapid pulse, it is important to check this against the tongue and the inside of the lower eyelids: in true conditions of Heat, the tongue will be Red and the inside of the lower eyelids will also be red.
The following are examples of situations when the Rapid pulse does not correspond to Heat.
Box 50.8 summarizes those situations when a Rapid pulse does not correspond to Heat.
The following factors may also cause the pulse to become temporarily Rapid in the absence of Heat: vigorous physical exercise, heavy meals, alcohol, smoking, tea, coffee, fright, emotional upsets, certain herbs such as Ma Huang Ephedrae sinicae or Ren Shen Radix Panax Ginseng and anaemia.
Differentiation of similar pulses
Empty
Pulse description
The Empty pulse has no strength and disappears with a light pressure, feeling empty; it is soft but also relatively big and distended at the superficial level.
Clinical significance
The Empty pulse indicates Qi deficiency at its beginning or middle stages; in chronic Qi deficiency, the Empty pulse will usually become Weak (see below). Since most of the patients we see suffer from chronic conditions, the classic Empty pulse is relatively rare. When discussing the clinical significance of the ‘Empty’ pulse, it is important to be precise about one’ terminology: there is a difference between the classic ‘Empty’ pulse as defined above, indicating purely Qi deficiency, and an empty-type pulse, which encompasses a broad range of deficient pulses, such as Weak, Fine, Choppy, etc. It is therefore important, especially in training clinics, not to use the word ‘Empty’ in a loose sense but only to indicate a precise pulse quality.
The Empty pulse is most common on the Lung position and in chronic conditions it may indicate Lung exhaustion (Fei Xu Lao).
If the pulse is Empty and relatively Floating and without strength in all three positions, especially of the left, it indicates Blood deficiency.
If the pulse is Empty and slightly Rapid in acute exterior syndromes, it indicates invasion of Summer-Heat.
Box 50.9 summarizes the clinical significance of an Empty pulse.
Differentiation of similar pulses
Weak
The Weak pulse is slightly deeper than the Empty pulse and therefore requires a slightly harder finger pressure and it lacks the relatively big and distended quality of the Empty pulse; it is also softer than the Empty pulse.
Choppy
The Choppy pulse is deeper than the Empty pulse, it lacks its relatively big and distended quality, it is weaker than the Empty pulse and it lacks a wave. By contrast, the Empty pulse has a wave. The Choppy pulse also feels ‘jagged’, whereas the Empty pulse feels quite rounded.
Hollow
The Hollow pulse is empty only at the middle level and can be felt at the superficial and deep levels; the Empty pulse is empty at the superficial level and is softer than the Hollow pulse.
Full
Pulse description
The Full pulse feels hard, full and long; it is felt easily at all levels and it has a springy quality resistant to finger pressure.
Clinical significance
The Full pulse simply indicates the presence of a Full pattern; its precise clinical significance can be deduced only from its combination with other qualities. When discussing the clinical significance of the ‘Full’ pulse, it is important to be precise about terminology: there is a difference between the classic ‘Full’ pulse as defined above, indicating purely a Full condition, and a full-type pulse, which encompasses a broad range of full pulses, such as Wiry, Slippery, Tight, Big, Overflowing, etc. It is therefore important, especially in training clinics, not to use the word ‘Full’ in a loose sense but only to indicate a precise pulse quality.
A proper identification of the Full pulse is essential to determine the correct principle of treatment in chronic conditions which are usually characterized by the simultaneous presence of Full and Empty patterns. In such cases, we must have a clear idea in mind as to what our treatment strategy should be, that is, tonify the body’ Qi or expel pathogenic factors. When we are confronted by these alternative treatment strategies, the pulse quality is extremely important in our deciding which one to choose; if the pulse is Full it is usually better to concentrate our attention on expelling pathogenic factors, even if the condition is chronic. Postviral fatigue syndrome is a case in point. In this condition there is nearly always deficiency, usually of Qi, and Excess, usually of Dampness, and I often base my decision whether to tonify Qi or resolve Dampness on the pulse quality: if it is Full or of the full type, I start by resolving Dampness rather than tonifying Qi. The same principle applies to any chronic conditions manifesting with simultaneous deficiency and Excess.
Box 50.10 summarizes the common conditions presenting with a Full pulse.
Slippery
Pulse description
The Slippery pulse feels slippery or ‘oily’: it is rounded, ‘slips’ or slides under the finger and flows smoothly. In ancient times, it was described as feeling like ‘pearls rolling in a basin’ or ‘raindrops rolling on a lotus leaf’. Students can get a good idea of what a Slippery pulse is by feeling the pulse of a pregnant woman in an advanced stage of pregnancy; most probably, the pulse will be very Slippery (if it is not, this is a bad sign).
Clinical significance
The Slippery pulse indicates primarily Phlegm or retention of food; it may also indicate Blood stasis. Generally speaking, the Slippery pulse is full by definition indicating the presence of Phlegm; however, it may also be combined with empty-type pulses reflecting the simultaneous deficiency of Qi and the presence of Phlegm (which usually derive from Qi deficiency).
Although the Slippery pulse is traditionally associated with Phlegm, it may also be seen in cases of chronic Dampness; for example, it is very common in chronic cases of postviral fatigue syndrome with clear manifestations of Dampness.
It is normal for the pulse to become Slippery during pregnancy and, indeed, it indicates a healthy pregnancy. Conversely, if the pulse is not Slippery during pregnancy, it is not a good sign and it may indicate impending problems; in such cases, the woman should be treated even in the absence of symptoms. In particular, there are certain pulse qualities which are undesirable during pregnancy, such as Choppy, Choppy-Wiry, Fine, Weak, Leather and Hollow, all of which may indicate the possibility of miscarriage.
According to some Chinese sources, a Slippery pulse that is Slowed-Down and relatively soft indicates health.
Common conditions manifesting with a Slippery pulse include a whole range of diseases characterized by Phlegm in all of its manifestations (i.e. Phlegm-Heat, Cold-Phlegm, Damp-Phlegm, Wind-Phlegm, etc.). In the organs, Phlegm can be retained primarily in the Lungs, Stomach and Heart (non-substantial Phlegm misting the Mind). Phlegm in the Lungs is extremely common and a good example of a Slippery pulse is that felt in a patient with acute or chronic bronchitis.
Conditions other than Phlegm, such as Damp-Heat or retention of food, may also lead to a Slippery pulse.
According to Dr Shen, when a Slippery quality is felt only in one position, it does not necessarily indicate Dampness or Phlegm. For example, he attributes the following clinical significance to a Slippery quality in individual positions:

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