• Recognize and use terms related to the anatomy and physiology of the musculoskeletal system. • Recognize and use terms related to the pathology of the musculoskeletal system. • Recognize and use terms related to the diagnostic procedures for the musculoskeletal system. • Recognize and use terms related to the therapeutic interventions for the musculoskeletal system. Match the musculoskeletal combining forms with their meanings. More than one answer may be correct. Decode the following terms using your knowledge of musculoskeletal word parts and suffixes learned in Chapter 1. Most adult bodies contain 206 bones. These bones are categorized as belonging either to the axial (ACK see ul) skeleton, which consists of the skull, rib cage, and spine, or the appendicular (ap pen DICK yoo lur) skeleton, which consists of the shoulder bones, collar bones, pelvic bones, arms, and legs (Fig. 3-1). Human bones appear in a variety of shapes that suit their function in the body. See Fig. 3-1 and the following table for the locations and descriptions of these bones. Each long bone (Fig. 3-2) is composed mainly of a long shaft called the diaphysis (dye AFF ih sis). Each end of the bone is called an epiphysis (eh PIFF ih sis) (pl. epiphyses). Underneath the epiphyses are the epiphyseal (eh pee FIZZ ee ul) plates, the areas where bone growth normally occurs. Around the ages from 16 to 25, the plates close, and bone growth stops. The epiphysis and epiphyseal plates together form the metaphysis (meh TAFF ih sis). Match the bone word parts with their meanings. 16. Osteoblasts ___________________________ bone, whereas osteoclasts ___________________________ bone. 17. The shaft of a long bone is called the ___________________________; the ends of a long bone are called ___________________________(plural!). 18. The outer covering of bone is the ___________________________, whereas the inner lining is the ___________________________. 19. A foramen, a sinus, and a fossa are examples of bone ___________________________. A condyle, a trochanter, and a tuberosity are examples of bone ___________________________. 20. A synonym for a sinus is a/an ___________________________. The axial skeleton includes the skull, spine, and rib cage (see Fig. 3-1). The skull is made up of two parts: the cranium (KRAY nee um) that encloses and protects the brain and the facial bones (Fig. 3-3). Frontal bone: Forms the anterior part of the skull and the forehead. Parietal (puh RYE uh tul) bones: Form the sides of the cranium. Occipital (ock SIP ih tul) bone: Forms the back of the skull. Notable is a large hole at the ventral surface in this bone, the foramen magnum (meaning large), which allows brain communication with the spinal cord. Temporal (TEM poor ul) bones: Form the lower two sides of the cranium. The mastoid process is the posterior part of the bone behind the ear. Ethmoid (EHTH moyd) bone: Forms the roof and walls of the nasal cavity. Sphenoid (SFEE noyd) bone: Anterior to the temporal bones and the basilar part of the occipital bone. Paranasal sinuses: Air-filled cavities that are named for the bones in which they are located. Each is lined with a mucous membrane (Fig 3-3, B). The last three bones of the skull, the ossicles, are tiny bones within the ear. These will be discussed in Chapter 14. Use Fig. 3-3 to locate the names and locations of the majority of the following facial bones: Zygoma (zye GOH mah): Cheekbone. Also called the zygomatic (zye goh MAT tick) bone. Lacrimal (LACK rih mul) bones: Paired bones at the corner of each eye that cradle the tear ducts. Maxilla (MACK sill ah): Upper jaw bone. Also called the maxillary bone. Mandible (MAN dih bul): Lower jaw bone. Also called the mandibular bone. Vomer (VOH mur): Bone that forms the posterior/inferior part of the nasal septal wall between the nostrils. Palatine (PAL eh tyne) bones: Shell-shaped structures that make up part of the roof of the mouth. Nasal turbinates (conchae) (KON kee): Make up part of the interior of the nose. Nasal Bones: Pair of small bones that make up the bridge of the nose. The ribs consist of 12 pairs of thin, flat bones attached to the thoracic vertebrae in the back and to costochondral (kost toh KON drul) tissue in the front (see Fig. 3-1). The ribs can be categorized as follows: • True ribs: Seven pairs attached directly to the breastbone (sternum) in the front of the body • False ribs: Five pairs attached to the sternum by cartilage • Floating ribs: Two pairs of false ribs not attached in the front of the body at all The spinal, or vertebral, column is divided into five regions from the neck to the tailbone. It is composed of 26 bones called the vertebrae (VUR teh bray). Fig. 3-4, A. The following table lists and illustrates the bones in the spine. Fig. 3-4, B illustrates a vertebra with the laminae (sing. lamina), spinous transverse processes, and facets. Laminae are thin, platelike arches in the vertebrae. Facets are processes that articulate between vertebrae. The appendicular skeleton is composed of the upper appendicular and lower appendicular skeletons. The upper appendicular skeleton (Fig. 3-5) includes the shoulder girdle, which is composed of the scapula, clavicle, and upper extremities. Refer to Fig. 3-1 for a correlation of each bone’s description with its location. Scapula (SKAP yoo lah): The scapulae, or shoulder blades, are flat bones that help to support the arms. The acromion (ack ROH mee un) process is the lateral protrusion of the scapula that forms the highest point of the shoulder. Clavicle (KLA vih kul): The clavicle, or collarbone, is one of a pair of long, curved horizontal bones that attach to the upper sternum at one end and the acromion process of the scapula at the other. These bones help to stabilize the shoulder anteriorly. A “wishbone” is composed of the fused clavicles of a bird. The upper extremities (see Fig. 3-5) consist of the following: Humerus (HYOO mur us): Upper arm bone. Radius (RAY dee us): Lower lateral arm bone parallel to the ulna. The distal end articulates with the thumb side of the hand. Ulna (UL nuh): Lower medial arm bone. The distal end articulates with the little finger side of the hand. The olecranon (oh LECK ruh non) is a proximal projection of the ulna that forms the tip of the elbow. Commonly known as the funny bone, this structure is actually a process. Carpus (KAR pus): One of eight wrist bones. Metacarpus (meh tuh KAR pus): One of the five bones that form the middle part of the hand. Phalanx (FAY lanks): One of the 14 bones that constitute the fingers of the hand, two in the thumb and three in each of the other four fingers (pl. phalanges). The three bones in each of the four fingers are differentiated as proximal, medial, and distal. The joints between these are referred to as proximal and distal interphalangeal (PIP, DIP) joints. When one is referring to a whole finger (or toe), the term digitus is used. The lower half of the appendicular skeleton can be divided into the pelvis and the lower extremities (Fig. 3-6). The acetabulum (pl. acetabula) is the socket into which the femoral head fits. The pelvic bones (also called the pelvic girdle) consist of the following three bones: Ilium (ILL ee um): The superior and widest bone of the pelvis. Ischium (ISS kee um): The lower portion of the pelvic bone. Pubis (PYOO bis) or pubic bone: The lower anterior part of the pelvic bone. The lower extremities include the following: Femur (FEE mur): Thigh bone, upper leg bone. Patella (puh TELL uh): Kneecap. Tibia (TIB ee uh): Shin bone, lower medial leg bone. Fibula (FIB yuh luh): Smaller, lower lateral leg bone. Malleolus (mah LEE oh lus): Process on the distal ends of tibia and fibula. Tarsus (TAR sus): One of the seven bones of the ankle, hindfoot, and midfoot. The calcaneus is the heel bone. Metatarsus (met uh TAR sus): One of the five foot bones between the tarsals and the phalanges. Phalanx: One of 14 toe bones, two in the great toe and three in each of the other four toes. Match the upper appendicular combining forms with their meanings. Match the lower appendicular combining forms with their meanings. L lower portion of pelvic bone Q superior, widest bone of pelvis R processes on distal tibia and fibula No ROM: Most synarthroses (sin ar THROH sees) are immovable joints held together by fibrous cartilaginous tissue. The suture lines of the skull are examples of synarthroses. Limited ROM: Amphiarthroses (am fee ar THROH sees) are joints joined together by cartilage that are slightly movable, such as the vertebrae of the spine or the pubic bones. Full ROM: Diarthroses (dye ar THROH sees) are joints that have free movement. The most commonly known are ball-and-socket joints (such as the hip) and hinge joints (such as the knees). Other examples of diarthroses include the elbows, wrists, shoulders, and ankles. See Fig. 3-7 for an illustration of a knee joint that shows the bones, muscles, tendons, bursae, synovial membrane, and cavity in the knee.
Musculoskeletal System
Exercise 1: Combining Forms for the Musculoskeletal System
Anatomy and Physiology
Bones
Types of Bones
Types
Examples
long bones
humerus (upper arm bone), femur (thigh bone)
short bones
carpal (wrist bone), tarsal (ankle bone)
flat bones
sternum (breastbone), scapula (shoulder blade)
irregular bones
vertebra (backbone), stapes (a bone of the ear)
sesamoid (SEH sah moyd) bones
patella (kneecap)
Bone Structure
Depression
Combining Form
Meaning/Function
Example
foramen
foramin/o
an opening or hole
foramen magnum, mental foramina
foh RAY men (pl. foramina)
fossa
foss/o
a hollow or depression, especially on the surface of the end of a bone
olecranal fossa
FAH sah (pl. fossae)
sinus
sin/o
sinus/o
a cavity or channel lined with a membrane
paranasal sinuses
SYE nus (pl. sinuses)
Process
Combining Form
Meaning/Function
Example
condyle
condyl/o
a rounded projection at the end of a bone that anchors the ligaments and articulates with adjacent bones
medial condyle of the femur
KON dyle
crest
a narrow elongated elevation
iliac crest
epicondyle
epicondyl/o
a projection on the surface of the bone above the condyle
lateral epicondyle of the humerus
eh pee KON dyle
head
a rounded, usually proximal portion of some long bones
femoral head, humeral head
spine
spin/o
a thornlike projection
spinous process of a vertebra
trochanter
trochanter/o
one of two bony projections on the proximal ends of the femurs that serve as points of attachment for muscles
greater trochanter
troh KAN tur
tubercle
tubercul/o
a nodule or small raised area
costal tubercle
TOO bur kuhl
tuberosity
an elevation or protuberance, larger than a tubercle
ischial tuberosity
too bur OSS ih tee
Exercise 2: Bone Basics
Axial Skeleton
Skull
Cranium
Facial Bones
Rib Cage
Spine
Region
Type and Abbreviation
cervical (SUR vih kul)
neck bones (C1-C7)
thoracic (thoh RAS ick)
upper back (T1-T12)
lumbar (LUM bar)
lower back (L1-L5)
sacral (SAY krul)
sacrum (S1-S5) (5 bones, fused)
coccygeal (kock sih JEE ul)
coccyx (KOCK sicks) or tailbone
Appendicular Skeleton
Upper Appendicular
Lower Appendicular
Exercise 9: The Appendicular Skeleton
Joints
Musculoskeletal System
Be Careful!
Be Careful!
Be Careful!
Be Careful!
Exercise 3:
Exercise 4:
Exercise 5:
Exercise 6:
Exercise 7:
Exercise 8:
Be Careful!
Be Careful!
Exercise 10:
Exercise 11:
