- Reflection
An intentional cognitive process of thought and contemplation regarding an issue and its relationship to one’s own practice, beliefs, values or behaviour
Definitions of critical reflection and critical reflective practice extend this to consider the broader social, political and moral context in which such experiences occur. Critical reflection goes beyond reflection to include an awareness and challenge to the hidden assumptions of practitioners and leaders, as well as the broader social and political context. It often has an association with deconstructing long-held beliefs or habitual practices. Critical reflective practice moves critical reflection beyond consideration of a specific problem or incident. As an everyday practice, critical reflection occurs on an ongoing basis and features as the practitioner’s and leader’s way of practising or leading. Walker, Cooke, Henderson and Creedy (2013, p. 505) suggest that critical reflective practice engages one ‘in the construction rather than the reproduction of knowledge’.
- Critical reflection
Reflection that includes an awareness of and challenge to the hidden assumptions of the practitioner and leader, as well as the broader social and political context
- Critical reflective practice
Critical reflection that occurs on an ongoing basis and is seen as a way of practising or leading
Types of reflection
One way of thinking about reflection is by considering where in the process of practice the reflection occurs; this is known as a temporal dimension of reflection, because it relates to the timing of the reflective process. Schön (1992) identifies three types of reflection based on temporal considerations: reflection for action, reflection in action and reflection on action. Reflection for action, or anticipatory reflection, occurs before an action. Here, a leader may consider ways of dealing with a situation prior to doing anything about it. While there is some debate and confusion around reflection on action and reflection in action (Usher & Bryant, 1997), in general, reflection in action is conceptualised as thinking on your feet, often occurring rapidly in the midst of an activity, while reflecting on action entails looking back at actions, processes and outcomes after the activity or event.
Hatton and Smith (1995) propose a hierarchical framework as a way of making distinctions between types of reflection. They identify four levels of reflection in writing: descriptive information, which describes events without any reflection; descriptive reflection, which describes events and attempts to provide some justification or explanation, with evidence of alternative viewpoints; dialogic reflection, which involves distancing from the events to explore the experience, is analytical and/or integrates alternative perspectives and factors, and recognises inconsistencies while providing a rationale or critique; and critical reflection, which situates events and actions within multiple perspectives, recognising the influence of numerous historical and sociopolitical contexts.
Pollard (2002, 2005) identifies seven characteristics of reflective teaching that fit equally well with characteristics of critical reflective practice:
- It is concerned ‘with aims and consequences, as well as means and technical efficiency’ (Pollard, 2002, p. 12). This situates critical reflection not just in everyday practice, but also in the broader sociopolitical and moral context.
- It is ‘a cyclical or spiral process’ in which practice is continuously monitored, evaluated and revised (Pollard, 2002, p. 12). Critical reflection is not a one-off event, but a continuous and embedded way of practising – a critical reflective practice.
- It requires a degree of competence in evidence-informed inquiry; thus it is a key element of experiential learning in continuing professional development and evidence-based practice (Stewart, 2012), and it supports the higher-order thinking skills that constitute clinical reasoning (Donaghy & Morss, 2000).
- It requires ‘open-mindedness, responsibility and whole-heartedness’ (Pollard, 2002, p. 13; see also Dewey, 1933). Critical reflection encompasses inquisitiveness and openness to other ways of thinking and doing. This does not imply a naivety or blind acceptance; rather, it implies curiosity and lack of defensiveness in thinking and questioning.
- It requires judgement. Critical reflection and critical reflective practice draw on experience, practice, evidence and context in order to evaluate and innovate.
- It entails dialogue, which may be with colleagues (Pollard, 2002) or internal with oneself, and is essential, as it serves as a trigger for learning and thinking (Snyder, 2014).
- It entails creative mediation: negotiation between opposing or conflicting ways of thinking or acting, and movement towards a resolution in terms of thought or action.
Perhaps an eighth defining characteristic of critical reflective practice lies in a focus on action and activity (Bradbury-Jones, Coleman, Davies, Ellison & Leigh, 2010), which differentiates it from just thinking about something (Rolfe, 2014). Its focus on activity and its continuous, or cyclical, nature make reflection a practice rather than a one-off or occasional event, often in response to a critical incident. Reflective practice is active and continuous – a way of being, or, as Rolfe (2014) suggests, a way of doing.
Reflective practice is experiential in nature; that is, we get better at it the more we do it and the more experience we have to build on (Wainwright, Shepard, Harman & Stephens, 2010). Therefore, reflective practice is a key element in experiential learning (Tate, 2004), contributing to the progression from novice to expert clinicians and leaders (Stewart, 2012). It is also a key element in professional development and adult learning, and a central feature of professional practice.
Part of the strength of critical reflective practice lies in the premise that self-reflective and self-initiated learning involving both feelings and cognition is the most lasting and pervasive learning. Independence, self-reliance, creativity and personal growth are all facilitated when self-criticism and self-evaluation are strong and evaluation by others is of secondary importance.
Because of its active, continuous and experiential learning components, critical reflective practice is also identified as an important way of integrating theory and practice (Binding, Morck & Moules, 2010; Plack, Dunfee, Rinsflesch & Driscoll, 2008; Wainwright et al., 2010), and it can help us to understand and resolve contradictions in expectations and actual practice (Johns, 2006). Therefore, critical reflective practice facilitates the integration of new theory and practice with previous beliefs and practices (see Figure 8.1).
Figure 8.1 The critical reflective practice cycle
Critical reflective practice is also closely linked to critical thinking (Brookfield, 1998), higher-order thinking (Mezirow, 1991) and critical awareness. These skills facilitate examination of attitudes, values, beliefs and goals (self-awareness), appreciation of the perspectives of others, awareness of alternative positions, and evaluation and sense-making of one’s own position (Plack et al., 2008), as well as consideration of broader policies, social and political circumstances, and moral obligations.
Leadership and critical reflective practice
Critical reflective practice is an important aspect of professional practice and leadership in contemporary healthcare environments. The rationale for its importance draws on the links between learning and self-awareness and the ability to be innovative and to manage and cope with change (Horton-Deutsch, Young & Nelson, 2010).
Benefits of critical reflective practice
Critically reflective leaders are self-aware and thoughtful, and they critically question and evaluate their leadership in a continuous and active cycle of development and learning. They have moral purpose, build relationships and are able to integrate theory and practice with past experiences in order to lead through change at personal and organisational levels. The key benefits of critical reflective practice are further discussed below.
Self-awareness
This is an essential element in leadership development and growth (Vitello-Cicciu, Glass, Weatherford, Seymour-Route & Gemme, 2014) and in enhanced learning in practice (Bradbury-Jones et al., 2010). Self-awareness supports recognition of our strengths and limitations, and assists us to deal with challenges and relationships with others and to maintain a sense of openness (Bradbury-Jones et al., 2010; Enterkin, Robb & McLaren, 2013; Horton-Deutsch et al., 2010; Snyder, 2014; Vitello-Cicciu et al., 2014).
Transferable learning
Critical reflective practice can offer insights into our previous experiences that may help us to understand and make sense of future experiences and facilitate future learning (Lee, 2009).
Understanding
Critical reflective practice can help leaders to clarify career goals and identify career development needs at personal and team levels (Enterkin et al., 2013). Opportunities for career development are central to staff empowerment, which is intrinsic to retention and change (Snyder, 2014).
Exploration
Critical reflective practice is also associated with a wider, contextualised viewpoint. Social and organisational contexts must factor in to reflective leaders’ strategic thinking in developing supportive networks and engaging in change activities at organisational or political levels (Enterkin et al., 2013).
Adaptability
Understanding and working with change are parts of daily practice in contemporary healthcare settings for both leaders and clinicians. Adaptability requires self-awareness and a broad understanding of the context in which change occurs (Horton-Deutsch et al., 2010). Critical reflective practice is transformative, and ‘reflective leaders model an adaptive capacity, manage conflict, and … [enable others] to embrace the future and share in the creation of it’ (Horton-Deutsch, 2013, p. 4).
Innovation
Critical reflection can expand thinking about further developments and new ways of thinking and acting, and can develop and drive innovation (Lee, 2009).
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