Endocrine System



Endocrine System


The endocrine system consists of a number of organized glands, groups of cells, and dispersed solitary cells that control the functional balance of internal organs by means of chemical messengers called hormones. Organized endocrine glands include the pituitary, the thyroid and parathyroid, the adrenal cortex and medulla, and the endocrine pancreas. In addition, sex organs such as the ovary and testis produce certain hormones (see chapters 7 and 8).




Thyroid Gland


The thyroid gland, which responds with peripheral feedback control to the hypothalamus and pituitary, is the key endocrine organ controlling energy metabolism (carbohydrate and lipid catabolism, stimulation of protein synthesis). It acts primarily through the effects of 2 hormones, thyroxin (tetraiodothyronine; T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which bind to receptors on various peripheral cells and stimulate their metabolic activities. These hormones are coupled to thyroglobulin and are stored in follicular colloids. Proteolytic enzymes release T4 and T3 and make it available in the periphery as active hormones. This process is accompanied morphologically by signs of follicular activation such as paraepithelial resorptive vacuoles in the colloid, epithelial swelling (cuboidal size), and proliferation (focal stratification to form Sanderson cushions and papillae).



Parathyroid Glands


In most people, 4 separate parathyroid glands lie in close proximity to the posterior part of the thyroid gland. Their hormone, parathyroid hormone (PTH), controls the calcium balance of the body as it responds to feedback mechanisms independently of hypothalamic-hypophysial supervision. One third of the normal parathyroid gland consists of fat tissue, and the balance contains the pale PTH-producing chief cells and pink oxyphilic cells. Any increase in weight above the normal 130 mg or replacement of fat tissue by glandular cells indicates hyperplasia/hyperfunction. Hyperparathyroidism independent of feedback control (i.e., autonomous) usually is caused by adenomas or carcinomas of the gland. Hypoparathyroidism (lack of PTH) is rare, usually follows surgical resection of the glands in thyroidectomies, and causes severe hypocalcemia. Familial autosomal recessive forms of hypoparathyroidism may occasionally occur as part of a multiglandular deficiency or in combination with T-cell immune deficiency (e.g., DiGeorge syndrome). The ionized serum calcium level provides the stimulus for PTH secretion. PTH stabilizes the serum calcium level by inhibiting renal tubular phosphate reabsorption and calcium/phosphate absorption in the bone and by enhancing calcium absorption in the intestines.



Adrenal Cortex (Suprarenal Cortex)


The adrenal cortex is composed of 3 microscopically identifiable zones, each of which engages in the production of different hormones: the zona glomerulosa (outer zone), the zona fasciculata (intermediate zone), and the zona reticularis (inner zone adjacent to adrenal medulla). The latter 2 zones respond to stimulation by hypophyseal corticotropin, whereas the zona glomerulosa functions independently of it. This zone produces the hormone aldosterone in response to increases in potassium levels and angiotensin or decreases in atrial natriuretic peptide or somatostatin. The 2 inner zones produce glucocorticoids and androgens in response to corticotropins. Increased functional activity in either zone is associated with microscopic hyperplasia, adenoma, or carcinoma; decreased functional activity is associated with atrophy (e.g., in malnutrition), necrosis (e.g., in septicemia, tuberculosis, or viral infection), or autoimmune adrenalitis.



Adrenal Medulla


The major organs of the sympathetic neuroendocrine system are the adrenal medulla and less compact collections of neuroendocrine cells in paraganglia, including the carotid body and the organ of Zuckerkandl. All consist of chromaffin cells (which have an affinity to chromium salts and stain dark on oxidation), which produce the catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine. Several tumors of chromaffin catecholamine-producing cells, such as pheochromocytoma and paragangliomas, exaggerate the physiologic functions of the organs. In addition, ganglionic cells in these regions may give rise to neuroblastomas. Approximately 10% of pheochromocytomas are part of a familial syndrome called multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN). Several forms of MEN are autosomal dominant diseases with mutations on chromosomes 10 and 11. Patients with an identified adenoma or carcinoma at one of these organ sites and their families must therefore be screened for other endocrine abnormalities.



Endocrine Pancreas


The endocrine pancreas consists of the islets of Langerhans. These are composite fabrication sites composed of different cells that produce and secrete several hormones. The greatest proportion (60-70%) are insulin-producing β cells; α cells (15–20%) produce the “insulin antagonist” glucagon. There are several clones of δ cells (e.g., D cells, D1 cells) which secrete somatostatin or vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) as well as cells that produce substance P, human pancreatic polypeptide, or gastrin (G cells). Consequently, pancreatic endocrine adenomas or carcinomas (e.g., gastrinoma, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide–secreting tumor [VIPoma], somatostatinoma, and others) can affect multiple endocrine activities. This chapter focuses only on the more common types of hyperinsulinism and hypoinsulinism (diabetes mellitus).





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Figure 12-1 Endocrine Function I
Endocrine function is supervised by the nervous system, especially the hypothalamus. Several nuclei of the hypothalamus secrete hypothalamic hormones that stimulate peripheral endocrine tissues via the pituitary (hypophysis). These hormones include corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH), and growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH). In addition, there are several direct- and indirect-acting hypothalamic hormones, including arginine vasopressin (AVP), somatostatin, and dopamine. Hypothalamic function responds to extraneous physical and emotional stimuli as well as to internal feedback control.

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Figure 12-2 Endocrine Function II
The pituitary gland controls the functional activity of peripheral endocrine tissues by secreting a large number of hormones, including thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), corticotropin (adrenocorticotropic hormone [ACTH]), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), interstitial cell–stimulating hormone (ICSH), luteotropic hormone or prolactin (LTH), somatotropic hormone (STH), and melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH). Hypothalamic damage from viral or other infections, granulomatous diseases (e.g., sarcoidosis), degenerative disorders, or tumor metastases has pathologic effects on the function of other peripheral tissues and endocrine organs. Such relations exist in obesity or anorexia nervosa, hypogonadism (e.g., pubertas tarda, sterility, amenorrhea), and certain rare polysymptomatic syndromes (Prader-Labhart-Willi syndrome, Laurence-Moon-Bardet-Biedl syndrome).

Related posts:

  1. Diseases of the Male Reproductive System
  2. Respiratory System
  3. Cardiovascular System
  4. Nervous System

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Jun 28, 2017 | Posted by in PATHOLOGY & LABORATORY MEDICINE | Comments Off on Endocrine System

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