- Emotional intelligence
The ‘ability to recognize the meanings of emotion and their relationships, and to reason and problem-solve on the basis of them’ (Mayer, Caruso & Salovey, 1999, p. 267)
Goleman (1995) argues that in the workplace, non-cognitive skills are just as important as intelligence quotient. He believes that employees with emotional intelligence skills are good communicators and have abilities to manage relationships, navigate social networks, influence and inspire others, and form strong emotional bonds with their organisations. Goleman also suggests that we would be better off if we understood our own emotions as well as those of others. By doing so, we might be able not only to more effectively control our emotional impulses but also to help others who are struggling, coping with grief or are angry, fearful or irritated. And, because emotional intelligence is easier to learn than cognitive abilities, Goleman says that companies might do well to invest in training people in the necessary emotional skills.
Characteristics of emotional intelligence
According to Goleman (1995), emotionally intelligent people tolerate high levels of stress, have a smoother life and experience more success. They are also curious about and enjoy meeting new people, know their strengths and weaknesses, and are aware of their emotions and impulses.
Emotional intelligence may even control so-called amygdala hijacks – any situation in which we respond grossly irrationally, even destructively, based on emotion rather than intellect. The amygdala is the emotional centre of the brain and can create havoc when under threat. In 1997, boxer Mike Tyson bit off part of Evander Holyfield’s ear in the World Boxing Association’s heavyweight championship in Las Vegas, and it cost him his boxing licence and $3 million. French superstar soccer player Zinedine Zidane headbutted Italy’s defender Marco Materazzi during the 2006 World Cup final, sending him crashing to the ground. Rugby player John Hopoate had a troubled career but will always be remembered for forcibly inserting his fingers into the anuses of players. These are examples of extreme amygdala hijacks.
Researchers believe that emotional intelligence is a strong predictor of job performance. Emotionally intelligent people make better workers (O’Boyle, Humphrey, Pollack, Hawver & Story, 2010). Individuals who are emotionally intelligent are paid more and hold higher company positions than those with less emotional intelligence, and they receive higher peer and supervisor ratings of interpersonal facilitation and stress tolerance (Lopes, Grewal, Kadis, Gall & Salovey, 2006). In addition, people who accurately perceive others’ emotions seem to be able to deal more easily with changes and build stronger social networks.
Gender differences
The results of some studies show that females seem to have higher emotional intelligence than males; high emotional intelligence in males is a predictor for achievement (Naghavi & Redzuan, 2011). This is probably due to the fact that females have traditionally been brought up to express their feelings, have better language skills and use more emotion regulation strategies. Most males have been encouraged to suppress their feelings and use physical reactions rather than words. Regardless of the cause, we know that appropriate emotional upbringing of children is an important factor in their future achievements and workplace success.
Some researchers believe that men and women have different types of emotional intelligence. While women tend to have stronger interpersonal skills, men seem to have a better sense of self and independence (Petrides & Furnham, 2000). This indicates that women may be better than men at being aware of their own emotions and those of others and are able to express their emotions more effectively. Men, on the other hand, tend to handle stressful events more successfully.
While there are no tests that produce a numerical emotional intelligence score, Block (1995) makes a comparison between people with theoretically high emotional intelligence and high intelligence quotient. Based on his research, the women with high emotional intelligence tend to be assertive, feel positive about themselves, express their feelings directly and handle stress well. Women with high intelligence quotient have intellectual confidence, value all things intelligent and are fluent in expressing their thoughts. They also tend to be more anxious, introspective, prone to guilt and not free to express anger.
Men who are high in emotional intelligence tend to be outgoing and cheerful, not fearful, and socially poised. They are also responsible, committed to good causes, caring in relationships and ethical. On the other hand, men with high intelligence quotient tend to have wide intellectual abilities and interests, are ambitious and productive and are not really concerned about themselves. They also tend to be critical, detached, cold and uneasy about sexual and emotional issues (Goleman, 1995).
Recent trends suggest that organisations are taking emotional intelligence seriously. In the past, top positions were dominated by those with independence and high stress tolerance, but more recently, people skills have become important as major changes take effect in organisations, such as competition, social responsibility, the culture of team working and partnerships. This may encourage more women to enter higher levels in organisations, especially if in addition to good interpersonal skills they have high stress tolerance.
Improving emotional intelligence
Plato said that all learning has an emotional base. Preliminary research shows that high emotional intelligence can boost happiness, career success, entrepreneurial potential, leadership talent, even health. It also shows that our level of emotional intelligence is firm but not rigid, which indicates that with practice and deliberate learning we can increase it (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2013). Some people may be naturally negative, shy or insecure, while others may be happy, with good personal skills; however, we all have the capacity to change and increase our emotional intelligence. There is evidence that emotional intelligence increases with age even without any special training, though the effect is not huge (Fariselli, Ghini & Freedman, 2008).
While improvement in emotional intelligence is possible, certain conditions apply. Firstly, the trainer or coaching program must be good. The most coachable ability is interpersonal skills, and evidence shows that the benefits of emotional intelligence coaching carry over to personal life, with improved happiness, health and relationships, and decreased stress levels (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2013).
Secondly, in order to improve, people need specific feedback – to see how they affect others, be aware of their own strengths and weaknesses and analyse their own behaviours. Thirdly, some techniques to enhance emotional intelligence produce better results than others. While the research is not conclusive, it seems that cognitive-behavioural therapy techniques are more effective than interventions designed to improve self-esteem or confidence (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2013). Finally, some people will benefit from emotional intelligence training, while others will not, depending on enthusiasm, personality, insecurity, willingness to change and other factors. Salovey (2007, p. 294), one of the original authors of the ability model, argues that
schools, families and employers should encourage the development of the following competencies:
- Perceiving emotions in ourselves and others.
- Understanding and expressing our emotions.
- Managing our emotions.
- Using our emotions as sources of creativity, problem-solving, decision-making, and motivation. (Salovey & Grewal, 2005; Salovey & Sluyter, 1997; both as cited in Salovey, 2007, p. 294)
Models of emotional intelligence
Researchers disagree on a common definition of emotional intelligence. They also disagree on the terminology and how much of our behaviour is affected by emotional intelligence. Currently, there are three major schools of thought on emotional intelligence: the ability model, the trait model and the mixed model.
Ability model
Mayer, Roberts and Barsade (2008, p. 507) represent emotional intelligence as ‘the ability to carry out accurate reasoning about emotions and the ability to use emotions and emotional knowledge to enhance thought’. The ability model of emotional intelligence (also called the four-branch model) describes four abilities that collectively illustrate the scope of emotional intelligence (Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso & Sitarenios, 2003). These abilities are accurately perceiving emotions in oneself and others, using emotions to facilitate thinking, understanding emotional meanings and managing emotions.
According to the model, emotions are constructive sources of information. Every person has their own unique way of perceiving, understanding and dealing with emotions. The four abilities are arranged sequentially from areas specific to the emotions (perceiving emotions) to the areas more suited to personality (managing emotions). The capacity to accurately perceive nonverbal emotions in others is essential for more advanced understanding of emotions.
Trait model
This model, developed by Petrides (2009), is based on the individual’s self-perceptions of their emotional abilities or their own emotional intelligence. According to the model, emotional intelligence is not a cognitive ability but ‘people’s perceptions of their own emotional abilities’ (Petrides, 2011, p. 660). Petrides (2009) identifies 15 emotional intelligence traits measured by self-report, assuming that the respondents are able to accurately depict their own traits. The model suggests that people perceive their emotional abilities differently. Some people believe that they are in charge of their emotions, while others are astounded by them. Petrides believes that our perceptions are relatively stable and impact directly on our mood, achievements and behaviour.
Mixed models
In contrast to the ability model, mixed models represent emotional intelligence as a group of personality characteristics that predict personal or professional success (Schulze & Roberts, 2005). The mixed model that has received the most attention in the scientific literature was developed by Bar-On (1997). According to this model, emotional intelligence is defined as ‘an array of noncognitive capabilities, competencies, and skills that influence one’s ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures’ (p. 14). To Bar-On, emotional intelligence explains why some people have better success in life than others. His self-report test is designed to measure factors such as awareness, stress, problem-solving and happiness.
Bar-On (1997) reviews personality characteristics in the mental health literature that are related to success beyond cognitive intelligence and identifies 5 dimensions and 15 subscales as key emotional intelligence factors. These are listed below:
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