- Critical thinking
‘The systematic evaluation or formulation of beliefs or statements, by rational standards’ (Vaughn & MacDonald, 2010, p. 119) that forms the basis of problem-solving, decision-making and emotional intelligence
To decide if the first of these statements is true requires further information, such as: ‘Tobacco contains several chemicals that are known to be toxic to humans’, ‘Smoking tobacco releases these chemicals’ and ‘Epidemiological evidence indicates higher morbidity and mortality in people who regularly smoke tobacco’. Put together, these three statements form an argument. The argument is also called deductive reasoning and is distinguished from inductive reasoning, in which specific observations are used to develop broader conclusions.
The development of an argument around the other two statements above may require more than three statements and may be less well supported by evidence. Managers need the ability to assess which statements support the argument in order to analyse the arguments of others and formulate their own arguments.
Barriers to critical thinking
According to Vaughn and MacDonald (2010, p. 119), the two most common hindrances to critical thinking arise because of ‘how we think’ and ‘what we think’. Our personal predispositions, such as preferences and appetites, influence how we think. Impediments to what we think tend to be based on beliefs about the world, our cultural heritage and upbringing. A significant influence on how and what we think can come from group pressure to conform and from our own desire to fit in.
To develop critical thinking skills, individuals need to assess the extent to which their thinking is influenced by the groups to which they belong. Group pressure can come in the form of peer pressure (the pressure to conform), appeals to popularity (a person is harder to like if they think or act differently) and appeals to common practice (doing something in the way it has always been done makes survival easier). However, group-centred thinking can degenerate into narrow-mindedness, resistance to change and stereotyping; and in this way it can limit an individual’s critical thinking and problem-solving. One of the best defences against group thinking is to always evaluate a claim according to the strength of arguments – that is, to assess the statements that are being made, their underlying premises and the assumptions that these make to determine if there is a reasonable argument to support the conclusions offered. Rudinow & Barry (2007) identify the following barriers to critical thinking:
- limited frame of reference constructed because of a belief structure about the world and the source of the information – for example, placing unjustified faith in what is learned from the internet
- lack of willingness to accept different views and tendency to make hasty moral judgements
- reliance on untested assumptions, wishful thinking and self-deception – that is, being convinced that something is true because that is the easiest or least painful option or avoids difficult consequences
- ethnocentricity and cultural conditioning in thinking – that is, the inability or unwillingness to think differently from the familial, tribal or cultural group
- stereotypes or labels used to judge others – for example, holding a prejudice about someone’s judgement based on their profession
- peer pressure and inappropriate reliance on authority – for example, simply believing what others say and avoiding thinking for oneself.
With regard to the final point above, critical thinking should not be confused with the need to obey a legitimate instruction, order, rule or policy. Careful judgement is needed before ignoring or disobeying legitimate authority.
Thinking is not driven by answers but by questions (Paul & Elder, 2000), and carefully constructed questions can define tasks, express problems and delineate issues. Questions are important for assessing the strengths of other people’s arguments and formulating one’s own arguments.
A male hospital employee who works as an administrative assistant with direct contact with patients of the mental health unit has recently informed you and his other work colleagues that he intends to commence wearing women’s clothing to work. Under medical advice, he is also commencing the process of changing his sex, which will take some time. The employee has indicated to you that it is important for his own mental health that he continues to function within society as usual during his sex change process.
Two of the mental health team, claiming to represent the majority of the clinical and non-clinical staff, have come to you, as the manager, to express their concerns about the impact this sex change process will have on the patients of the mental health unit. They argue that many of the patients may find it confronting to have to deal with a man in women’s clothing. They also argue that the sexual ambiguity will hamper this employee’s capacity to engage with patients in a general sense. They insist that he be reassigned to work in a different part of the hospital.
As the manager, you need to consider whether the two staff members’ concerns are reasonable or an exhibition of assumptions and prejudice on their part and to examine your own barriers to critical thinking that might arise as you consider your response to this situation.
Developing critical thinking skills
The Foundation of Critical Thinking lists methods that can help in the development of critical thinking (Elder & Paul, n.d.) They are discussed below.
Listen actively
Instead of hoping to passively absorb the message that someone is sending, it is useful to think about what they are saying both through the words they are using and the underlying messages. Active listening involves the listener reflecting back to the speaker what they think they heard, to confirm correct understanding. Active listening involves neither agreeing nor disagreeing; it is concerned with clarifying understanding of the speaker’s meaning.
Stick to the point
When making a disciplined argument, it is important to avoid information and arguments that are irrelevant to the issue at hand and that jump from one point to another in a manner that is not logical or related. Before making an argument, the following questions should be considered: What is the main issue? What information and arguments relate directly to the main issue? What information and arguments are not relevant? How is the argument best developed to relate the relevant information to the main issue?
Be reasonable
There are two steps here: managers must be able to identify unreasonableness in others and identify their own unreasonableness. It is vital for managers to examine closely what people are saying and to form a view as to the strength of their arguments, regardless of whether they challenge the managers’ own understanding, accepted position, deep-seated beliefs or cultural preferences. So, managers should be prepared to change a point of view when faced with a well-reasoned argument.
Question questions
Managers need to be skilled questioners. Successful questioners form questions that increase understanding and clarify issues. They avoid questions that come across as challenging, argumentative or loaded. One approach is to formulate a number of different questions for the same issue. Then select the one that best addresses the issue and is acceptable to the person being questioned; this is the most likely approach that will elicit the result being sought.
Decision-making
Every day we are faced with a wide variety of decisions, but not all of them relate to a problem or need deep analysis – for example, what to wear, what to eat, where to go after work. Decision-making extends to the workplace, where we need to decide if what we are facing is ‘business as usual’ or an issue that needs a unique decision. Unlike many personal decisions, decision-making in the workplace also has implications for others, so consideration of how to involve others in the decision-making process is important. The following steps guide the process of making decisions in the workplace:
- Identify the problem. Ask, ‘Is there a problem?’ If there is, ask, ‘What is it?’ Not every issue is necessarily a problem that needs a solution.
- Identify and weigh the criteria that will define the decision-making priorities. Gather and analyse information. Relatively simple analysis is often all that is necessary.
- Identify options and consult with stakeholders.
- Secure the commitment of stakeholders to the recommended option.
- Implement the solution and evaluate its effectiveness.
