10

Communicating Results

All the time, effort and expense invested in performing an experiment is lost if the results and conclusions are not communicated to supervisors, peers and the wider scientific community. This is usually done in stages to allow for a series of criticisms and improvements. The first stage is carried out in the laboratory book, and as mentioned in Section 1.2, involves the tabulation of the primary or raw data. In order to assess any relationships between the variables, secondary calculations are made and the results presented in tables or graphs, and statistical tests applied to assess the probability of the variables conforming to these relationships. They are then communicated to peers, such as fellow students or co-workers, for criticism. This is done either orally or in the form of a poster presentation. The next stage is to write a formal report or scientific paper. Because a report is regarded as preliminary there is no excuse to ignore correct scientific units, nomenclature and conventions. This is done so as to avoid ambiguity and to communicate with greater clarity.

10.1 PRELIMINARY REPORTS

Before performing any secondary calculations, often it is convenient to reduce very small or large numbers by converting them to more manageable numbers. This also helps to avoid errors incurred when handling numbers to the power of 10. This can be done by expressing numbers as prefix, for example by expressing 10−8g as 10 ng. However you should be aware that this cannot always be done, for example when drawing a Schild plot to find a pA2 value, as the pA2 is defined in terms of molar concentration, although it does not have any units itself. The next stage is to decide on which is the best way to display the data – be it tabular or graphical. Frequently, the type of presentation is obvious, such as constructing a log concentration–response curve. In many cases, the form in which data are presented may not seem so clear, but this is a relatively simple procedure. There are two major forms of data presentation, tables and graphs. Data should always be expressed as means ± an error or (SD or SEM), together with the number of observations or samples. A single observation has little value!

10.1.1 Tables

Tables are only used to report descriptive data. For example, they may be used to show data about the subjects used in a study. Large tables of raw data consisting of individual readings from a machine, such as a spectrophotometer, should not be included in the text. They may be included in an appendix or even only stored in the laboratory notebook. The central point of data presentation is to clearly summarize a large number of individual data in a form that helps the reader understand the data. If it is intended to convey any kind of relationship between the data sets, then a table is not the right format to choose.

10.1.2 Graphs

It is important to select the most appropriate format of graphical format. There are different types of graphs: x–y, bar graphs and histograms and pie charts. An x–y graph is selected if it is desired to demonstrate a relationship between two variables. It is vital to select which variables are the dependent and the independent. Parameters such as time, dose or age are independent variables and are plotted on the x-axis. Responses are dependent variables and are plotted on the y-axis. It is important to pay attention to several details:

• The use of appropriate scales. Should the range of values on the axis begin at zero, or should the range cover only those of the experimental values? If there is a linear axis, the range of values should start at zero (unless there are both positive and negative values, in which case, the range should cover both positive and negative numbers, but the line of the other axis should pass through zero). If the values on the axis are logarithmic numbers, the range of values should only cover the range of the experimental data. Remember that zero on a logarithmic axis gives an original (antilog) value of 1.
  
• The correct labelling of axes. Each axis should be labelled with a descriptive label together with units. For example, ‘enzyme activity (ΔE/min)’. Each axis contains major and minor division marks. Sufficient minor division marks should be included so as to be able to read off values from the line, but not so many as to make the axis very crowded.
  
• Every graph should be labelled with a figure number, together with a fully descriptive legend, which is generally placed below the graph. If the graph is prepared using a graphics program, the legend should not be written on the graph within this program. The legend should be written within the word-processing program (such as Word). This should contain basic details of the technique used and the variables measured. Identification of symbols used for each line must be included. A brief headline title is not used. The general rule is that a figure should be intelligible without reference to the text.

10.1.3 Bar Graphs

These are used when there is a dependent variable and a discontinuous variable, such as treatments or types. Again, for the independent variable there must be a descriptive label and correct units. Bar graphs and histograms must be labelled with a figure number and a descriptive legend, as for x–y graphs. Rarely, a pie chart is a clear way to describe data. These are best used to show the distribution of a dependent variable in terms of abundance (as a percentage) amongst different groups or treatments.

10.1.4 Preliminary Conclusions

After the data have been plotted, and a relationship or statistically significant differences established, general conclusions can be drawn. This will form the basis of the abstract in a full report of the work. This should take the form of several brief sentences making distinct points, and may be numbered. First, a brief description of the hypothesis and aims should be stated. This is followed by a list of the results, stating important values together with SD or SEM. Finally, state what may be concluded from the study together with any limitations.

10.2 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

Poster presentations are commonly used as the first public presentation of research work. This may be a preliminary assessment of student work or more widely at scientific meetings. Some scientific societies, such as the British Pharmacological Society (BPS) and Physiological Society, actually perform an assessment after the session and a vote is taken as to whether they are acceptable to the society. A central feature of posters is that they are held in a large space with many other presentations, and they are competing for attention. They are rather like an advertisement for the work. A balance has to be struck between making the presentation attractive and easily assimilated, yet including sufficient details to make them scientifically valid. Authors must be in attendance at the poster, prepared to give further explanation and clarification. They are in a position rather like a shop assistant. They must be available for assistance, yet not so intrusive that they prevent a reader from examining the work.As with all presentations, written or oral, it is vital to be direct it to the type of audience. Frequently, readers of a poster will not be familiar with the topic in detail, and come from a wide range of backgrounds. The actual form of the poster must conform to requirements distributed by the organizers, who should specify the size of the display area, and the type of board and other facilities that will be available to authors. Posters have a title area at the top and the space below is divided into a series of sections. The poster may be prepared as one large sheet that can be rolled up and carried in a cardboard tube, or as separate cardboard sections. Whichever way is chosen, they are best prepared using specialized software, such as Microsoft PowerPoint or Publisher. Large sheets can be printed using an A2 or A1 printer.

The title should be in a large font (such as 72 point) across the top, such that it can be read across a room. It should contain authors’ names and affiliations. The wording of the title is important as it has to attract people from a distance. It should be short and attractive, rather like a newspaper headline, yet convey sufficient meaning of the contents of the poster.

From the start, a font and style should be chosen so that it may be easily read from a distance of about 1 m. Text should be double spaced. This means that the amount of details that can be included is limited. The arrangement of the individual sections varies, but it must be clear to follow and be easy to understand how the different sections interrelate. The sections resemble a report, but may not necessarily be as formal as a report. For example, the ‘Introduction’ may be labelled ‘Background’. Since readers have little time to assimilate the contents of a poster, they may be drawn to the end section or ‘Conclusions’ to find if this is of interest to them. For this reason, it can be a good idea to place a section entitled ‘Summary’ at the beginning underneath the title. The methods section presents a challenge as it must briefly indicate how the experiments or studies were carried out. The ‘Results’ are important as readers will want to know what the study has contributed to the topic. It is best to limit the amount of text by including two or three carefully selected graphs, diagrams or photographs. Well-presented visual aids are more rapidly assimilated by readers. The poster should finish with a brief conclusion, limited to a ‘take away message’. It is useful to cite one or two key references. It is common for an author to have a small A4-sized copy of the poster that can be given to especially interested readers. Supplementary material can also be available to aid with explanations.

Finally, posters are judged not only by the clarity with which information is conveyed by the poster itself, but also by how the author responds to questions and requests for further explanation. It is important that the author responds to the best of his knowledge, but it is crucial that the author does not go beyond this and extrapolate or invent answers. Equally, if few questions are forthcoming, this is not necessarily a sign of lack of interest; it may be merely a reflection of how clearly the poster was presented. When a poster is presented to a professional society, such as the BPS or the Physiological Society, sometimes there is a vote by the members to ascertain whether the poster presentation is of a standard acceptable to the society. If accepted, an abstract of the work will be published in the proceedings of the society.

10.3 ORAL PRESENTATIONS

Presentations in front of an audience naturally are a cause for nervousness. This is only overcome by having a good familiarity with the topic, as well as background material. The first step in planning a talk is to create a plan with the allotted time in mind. A simple structure is important so that a coherent thread is evident. No extraneous or irrelevant material should be included as this only confuses, and can annoy, listeners. It will also keep the speaker on track. The aim is to become so familiar with the material that there is time to interact with the audience, if this is the only time to look around. With the plan in mind, appropriate slides can now be selected, or if necessary specially created for the purpose. It can be confusing and off-putting to include slides or results that were designed for another purpose. It is best not to include too much detail on each slide, and the aim is not to read the entire talk from the slides, as this will not instil an air of confidence either in the speaker or the audience. The text on slides should only be a cue, and require further explanation, so that the audience listens to the speaker, rather than reading slides. It is vital that the font must be large enough to be clearly read from the back of the room. A simple slide layout is most suitable, and background colours add little to enhance a talk, especially if it makes the text less legible. It is not a good idea to include too many gimmicky photographs and animation, and the design of slides should be kept simple. It has been many years now since the introduction of PowerPoint, and people are becoming tired of being sidetracked by all of its curious features. Remember that it is an aid to explain the study and not an opportunity to advertize the software. When presenting data, avoid complex slides containing too many numbers, lines on graphs or bar graphs. It is best to only present summary statistics, and modify graphs to reduce the amount of data. More detailed slides can be available that could be used to illustrate possible questions at the end of the talk. The aim is to keep control of the talk so that it can be delivered in a paced manner, and not a rushed reading of an excessive number of slides.

Having arrived at a plan of the talk and selected the appropriate slides, it is vital to have complete familiarity with the structure and length of the presentation. This can only really be done by delivering it orally. What appeared a good idea written down can become cumbersome when it is spoken. The order of presentation of slides can be changed, or any vital missing pieces included. The talk then should be practised repeatedly until this can be done smoothly without reference to notes.

It is almost obligatory to answer questions at the end of the talk. As was mentioned in connection with poster presentations, answers should be confined to knowledge that is familiar to the speaker, no more. If the answer to a question is not known, this is no cause for shame and should be answered as such. Some questions are predictable and can be planned for. For example, it is common to ask the speaker what future studies should be done, or how could the data be improved.

10.4 PROJECT REPORTS

Scientific writing can present quite a challenge to many students. It is an exercise in clear planning and coherent expression of the material. It is a well-known weakness, which is not unique to students, to plagiarize material from the internet. With the introduction of software to detect plagiarism, it is not uncommon for students to spend hours rephrasing paragraphs in a vain attempt to avoid detection by such tools. With some thought, it is possible to write original text in less time. The secret to report writing is planning. This is done in a variety of ways that suits different people. A simple approach to planning a project report is to write the contents page first. The basic structure of a scientific report has a conventional form – introduction, methods, results, discussion. If required, an appendix can be added. Sometimes the format to be adopted is provided. If not, the instructions to authors’ section for a scientific journal can be used. In the case of a pharmacology project, instructions for authors provided by British Journal of Pharmacology are suitable. Starting on the introduction section can provide a challenge to new authors. As always, a clear plan must be made. To compile the contents of the introduction section, readers should be introduced to the topic in stages. It is wise to start with a broad statement about the topic in relation to the broad field of pharmacology. Subsequent sections then lead the reader into the main aspects of the subject. A final section then states the hypothesis or aim of the study in context with what is known to date. As an example a fictitious study entitled ‘Inhibition of neutrophil activation by angiotensin receptor antagonists’. A possible Introduction might consist of a series of paragraphs on the following topics.

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