Aging and Preventive Health

Aging and Preventive Health



Ronan Factora



ROLE OF FRAILTY IN PREVENTIVE HEALTH


Health maintenance and preventive measures contribute to the maintenance of independent function and quality of life in the elderly individual. As with younger adults, optimization of management of chronic and acute disease processes helps to maintain optimal health in elderly patients. Numerous chapters in this text are devoted to management of specific disease processes pertinent to this population. These include the following:


• Cardiology: Atrial Fibrillation, Cardiac Arrhythmias, Heart Failure, Peripheral Arterial Disease, Preventative Cardiology, Syncope

• Dermatology: Photo Aging

• Endocrinology: Erectile Dysfunction, Diabetes, Osteoporosis, Male Hypogonadism

• Gastroenterology: Colorectal Neoplasia

• Hematology/Oncology: Anemia, Multiple Myeloma, Breast Cancer Screening, Prostate Cancer

• Infectious Disease: Immunization for Adults

• Nephrology: Slowing Progression of Renal Disease

• Neurology: Alzheimer’s Disease, Antiplatelet Agents in Secondary Stroke Prevention, Carotid Vascular Disease, Dizziness, Low Back Pain, Parkinson’s Disease, Stroke, Tremors

• Psychiatry and Psychology: Delirium, Depression, and Other Mood Disorders

• Pulmonary Disease: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

• Rheumatology: Gout, Osteoarthritis

• Women’s Health: Breast Cancer Risk Assessment and Prevention, Cervical Cancer Screening and Prevention, Menopause, Osteoporosis, Urinary Tract Infections in Adults

Beyond this, other factors contribute to this goal: physical activity, nutritional status, and cognitive and social stimulation. The idea of modifying these factors to foster the process of successful aging has been discussed in detail, and continues to be the focus of research.1 In the elderly population, addressing these issues helps to maintain physical health, independence, and quality of life.


The concept and definition of frailty continue to evolve. Despite recent conventions and definitions, physicians usually say “they know frailty when they see it.” Frailty has been characterized as an interaction between loss of muscle mass (sarcopenia), presence of multiple chronic illnesses, and loss of functional independence (Fig. 1).2 Factors that have been identified as comprising the frailty phenotype include the loss of muscle mass, muscle weakness, poor endurance or energy, slowness, and low physical activity.


image

Figure 1 The interaction of the frailty phenotype with its proposed constituents.


With normal aging and accumulation of chronic diseases, the risks for functional decline and loss of independence increase. Decline is especially marked in individuals with multiple chronic illnesses who experience multiple exacerbations of chronic illness or acute illnesses. Typically, these individuals tend to be less physically active. Lean muscle mass declines as a result of inactivity. This leads to a reduction in resting energy expenditure, reduction in caloric intake, and weight loss (lean muscle mass along with fat). Sarcopenia increases, tolerance of physical activity decreases, and the cycle repeats itself.


Homeostatic reserve is defined as the redundancy of physiologic functions present in human systems that is used to overcome acute and chronic health insults. The frailty phenotype can be used as a marker indicating a critical threshold in decline of homeostatic reserve. It also has been hypothesized to be a contributing factor to progression of chronic disease states, development and worsening of geriatric syndromes, and decline in ability to perform activities of daily living (see Fig. 1).


Decline in cognitive abilities contributes to decline in functional independence. With normal aging, processing speed of the brain declines and recall time increases. Risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease increases each year after age 60. Comorbid illnesses such as stroke, diabetes, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia may also increase the risk of dementia. Current research has been focused on treating the consequences of dementia, but no treatment modality is currently available to reverse the process or halt its progression. Loss of cognitive reserve and the development of dementia have been associated with a greater risk of developing delirium, which is associated with increased morbidity and mortality in the context of acute illness.


Loss of homeostatic reserve puts the individual in a vulnerable position, whereby acute health events may lead to loss of function and independence and reduction in quality of life. An example of such an outcome is the admission of an elderly person into the hospital for a urinary tract infection. The patient, already having problems maintaining independent function at home (because of mobility issues and cognitive impairment), experiences various hospitalization insults, including delirium related to medications, immobility (from restraints and bed rest), and deconditioning. Such individuals are typically discharged to a rehabilitation facility. Delirium and underlying cognitive impairment lead to poor recovery of independent ambulatory function; eventually this patient is transferred to a nursing home. The patient never regains independence to a level that is safe to be at home.


The loss of homeostatic reserve and the development of frailty can be manifested in the myriad of syndromes encountered in the elderly. Geriatric syndromes include falls, delirium, malnutrition, urinary incontinence, and deconditioning. These syndromes typically arise out of several contributing factors. Identification of specific risk factors related to these syndromes has been shown to reduce the risk of their development.


Arguably, through interventions to maintain physical and cognitive reserves, it may be possible to prevent, slow, or reverse the development of the frailty phenotype and cognitive decline in healthy elderly individuals, even for those who have already developed loss of homeostatic reserve. As understanding of these relations grows, randomized trials of targeted interventions may more accurately determine the efficacy of therapies to these end points. In the interim, it is worthwhile to look at the available literature and examine which interventions may be of benefit.



PHYSICAL ACTIVITY


Engagement in physical activity often declines with increasing age. Benefits of regular exercise have been studied extensively and are myriad, including reduction in risk of heart attack and stroke, improvement of diabetic control, stress reduction, improvement of pulmonary function, reduction of osteoarthritic pain and stiffness, and reduction of depressive symptoms. Beyond the benefits associated with chronic disease processes, physical activity in and of itself helps to maintain pulmonary and cardiac function, as well as musculoskeletal mass and tone.


There is a clear connection between maintenance of muscle strength, cardiovascular tone, and the ability to perform activities of daily living, to engage in leisure activities, and maintain quality of life. Intensity of physical activity and appropriate nutrition contribute to the maintenance of muscle mass. With normal aging, a reduction in muscle mass does occur. Participating in a regular exercise program can help reduce the risk of developing sarcopenia and its consequences.3


Targeted exercise types may also help specific areas of weakness and reduce the risk of functional decline. Exercise types include weight training, cardiovascular fitness, balance training, and flexibility training. Each type has its benefits. Strength training through use of resistance exercises helps to maintain muscle bulk and tone. Exercise of large muscle groups used in weight bearing helps to maintain mobility (for example, quadriceps strength is needed to maintain the ability to stand and properly ambulate). An example of this is in maintaining arm and leg strength to be able to perform light and heavy lifting needed to do housework. Such exercises can also be beneficial in maintaining the ability to participate in leisure (gardening, golfing) and social activities (dancing). With reduced use, slow twitch fibers eventually atrophy and convert to fatty tissue, with consequent reduction in muscle bulk, function, and potential decline in physical functional capacity.


Cardiovascular exercise is beneficial in maintaining physical activity tolerance. Even a simple regimen of walking for at least 30 minutes daily for three or more days of the week has demonstrated benefit. Reduced cardiovascular tone can result from a sedentary lifestyle, but may also be a consequence of comorbid illnesses that affect physical activity (congestive heart failure, peripheral vascular disease, osteoarthritis). Prolonged inactivity leads to a reduction in physical activity tolerance. The individual can become more limited in his or her ability to engage in activities that require some level of physical exertion. Thus, activities previously performed with no difficulty become burdensome. This can potentially lead to social isolation, further inactivity, and a cycle of declining quality of life and depression. One example could be loss of ability to volunteer at a community center because of significant exertional dyspnea related to walking; this can lead to reduction in volunteerism, less time spent socializing, potentially more time spent at home, and greater inactivity.


Along with cardiovascular tone, adequate balance and flexibility contribute to ambulatory ability. Several disease processes can affect these factors, including cerebrovascular disease, osteoarthritis, peripheral neuropathy, joint replacement surgeries, visual impairment, and vestibular dysfunction. A reduction in balance or flexibility because of these factors can increase the risk of falls in the individual (Fig. 2).


image

Figure 2 The cycle of falls.


Several factors contribute to the risk of falls; after the sentinel event of a fall, development of fear of falling also increases risk.


A fall is a sentinel event signaling a decline in an individual’s physical homeostatic reserve, marking a point of greatest risk for loss of independence. Typically, several factors contribute to this end point and punctuate the multifactorial nature of the development of frailty and loss of functional capacity. Risk of falls is greatest after acute illness. These periods are associated with bed rest, inactivity, and inadequate nutritional intake. The consequence is development of deconditioning. Many hospitalized elderly patients who were initially able to ambulate on admission end up being discharged requiring a walker or wheelchair, all as a result of weakness that developed during acute hospitalization. A decline in the ability to ambulate can lead to a decline in ability to perform activities of daily living independently, increased reliance on others for assistance, and increased risk of social isolation.


Falls themselves are risk factors for future falls. Development of fear of falling because of feelings of unsteadiness or a fall can prompt an individual to limit physical activity. This may further perpetuate the cycle of inactivity, further reductions in muscular and cardiovascular tone, reduced oral intake, impaired nutritional status, and further decline. Several studies have been conducted confirming the benefit of the exercise Tai Chi in improving balance and reducing the risk of falls.4 Engaging in this or similar activities may improve or enhance balance and flexibility.


With greater amounts of exercise, greater benefits can be derived from it. The maintenance and increase of reserve functional capacity are important concepts in the elderly population. Homeostatic reserve allows an individual to overcome the results of acute insults to health. The presence of a greater amount of homeostatic reserve allows an individual to recover more quickly and more completely from acute declines in health. Decline in homeostatic reserve in all systems as a part of the aging process is generally recognized. This is accelerated by chronic disease processes and acute illness. The consequence is an impaired ability to recover from acute illness, the potential for permanent impairment, and development of a new functional baseline.


Ultimately, the goal in participation of physical activity in the healthy elderly population is maintenance and development of physical functional reserve capacity. For individuals suffering acute illness, appropriate physical activity in the form of physical therapy, rehabilitation, and scheduled exercise can accelerate recovery to a functional baseline.

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Jul 18, 2017 | Posted by in GENERAL SURGERY | Comments Off on Aging and Preventive Health

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