Prefixes
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
• To identify and define common prefixes used in medical terms
• To analyze, spell, and pronounce medical terms that contain prefixes
Introduction
This chapter reviews the prefixes you studied in Chapter 1 and introduces new prefixes. The list of Combining Forms and Suffixes that follows will help you understand the terminology presented beginning on page 130. Remember to complete all exercises and check your answers. The Pronunciation of Terms and Review are opportunities to test your understanding of all terminology in this chapter.
COMBINING FORMS AND SUFFIXESPrefixes and Terminology
| PREFIX | MEANING | TERMINOLOGY | MEANING |
| a-, an- | no, not, without | apnea ____________________ | |
| In this term, the root (PNE, meaning breathing) is embedded in the suffix (-PNEA). Sleep apnea occurs when breathing stops suddenly during sleep. | |||
| aphasia ____________________ | |||
| A stroke affecting the language area of the brain can produce this condition. | |||
| atrophy ____________________ | |||
| Disuse of a muscle can result in muscular atrophy. Muscles shrink as cells decrease in size. | |||
| anemia ____________________ | |||
| Anemia is a condition in which there is a lower-than-normal number of red blood cells or a decrease in hemoglobin within the cells. Table 4-1 lists different forms of anemia. | |||
| amenorrhea ____________________ | |||
| ab- | away from | abnormal ____________________ | |
| ad- | toward, near | adrenal glands ____________________ | |
| See Figure 4-1. | |||
Table 4-1
| aplastic anemia | Bone marrow fails to produce red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and clotting cells (platelets). |
| hemolytic anemia | Red blood cells are destroyed (-LYTIC), and bone marrow cannot compensate for their loss. This condition can be hereditary or acquired (after infection or chemotherapy) or can occur when the immune system acts against normal red blood cells (autoimmune condition). |
| iron defciency anemia | Low iron levels lead to low hemoglobin concentration or defciency of red blood cells. |
| pernicious anemia | The mucous membrane of the stomach fails to produce a substance (intrinsic factor) that is necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12 and the proper formation of red blood cells. |
| sickle cell anemia | Erythrocytes assume an abnormal crescent or sickle shape; this “sickling” is due to the inheritance of an abnormal type of hemoglobin. The sickle-shaped cells clump together, causing clots that block blood vessels. |
| ana- | up, apart | analysis  ____________________ |
| ante- | before, forward | antepartum ____________________ |
| anti- | against | antibody |
| An antibody is a protein made by white blood cells— literally, a “body” working “against” foreign substances. | ||
| antigen ____________________ | ||
| Antigens are foreign substances, such as bacteria and viruses. When antigens enter the body, they stimulate white blood cells to produce antibodies that act against the antigens. |
Analysis of urineA urinalysis (urine + analysis) is the separation of urine to determine its components. The following chart shows typical urinalysis findings:
| Test | Normal | Abnormal |
| 1. Color | light yellow | red (hematuria) |
| 2. Clarity | clear | cloudy (infection) |
| 3. pH (chemical nature) | slightly acidic | alkaline (infection) |
| 4. Protein | very slight | proteinuria (renal disease) |
| 5. Sugar | none | glycosuria (diabetes mellitus) |
| antibiotic ____________________ | ||
| Antibiotics differ from antibodies. They are produced outside the body by microorganisms and primitive plants called molds. Examples are penicillin and erythromycin. As disease-fighting medications, they are taken by mouth or through intravenous injection or applied topically to be absorbed through the skin. | ||
| bi- | two, both | bilateral ____________________ |
| brady- | slow | bradycardia ____________________ |
| con- | with, together | congenital ____________________ |
| A congenital anomaly is an irregularity (anomaly) present at birth. Examples are webbed fingers and toes and heart defects. | ||
| dia- | complete, through | diarrhea ____________________ |
| Feces (stools) are loose and watery. Normal water reabsorption through the walls of the colon is impaired. | ||
| dys- | bad, painful, diffcult, abnormal | dyspnea ____________________ |
| dysphagia ____________________ | ||
| dysplasia ____________________ | ||
| dysmenorrhea ____________________ | ||
| dysuria ____________________ | ||
| Dysuria is often a symptom of a urinary tract infection (UTI). | ||
| ec- | out, outside | ectopic pregnancy ____________________ |
| Figure 4-2 shows possible sites of ectopic pregnancies. Figure 4-3 indicates uterine levels in a normal pregnancy. |
-Plasia, -phagia, and -phasiaDon’t confuse these very different suffixes. -Plasia means formation, -phagia means eating or swallowing, and -phasia means speech.
| endo- | within, in, inner | endoscopy ____________________ |
| Table 4-2 lists types of endoscopy procedures. | ||
| endocrine glands ____________________ | ||
| The adrenal glands are endocrine glands. Table 4-3 lists the major endocrine glands and the hormones that they secrete. |
Table 4-2
TYPES OF ENDOSCOPY PROCEDURES*
| arthroscopy | Visual examination of a joint |
| bronchoscopy | Visual examination of the bronchial tubes |
| colonoscopy | Visual examination of the colon (large intestine) |
| cystoscopy | Visual examination of the urinary bladder |
| esophagogastroscopy | Visual examination of the esophagus and stomach |
| hysteroscopy | Visual examination of the uterus |
| laparoscopy | Visual examination of the abdomen |
| laryngoscopy | Visual examination of the larynx (voice box) |
| mediastinoscopy | Visual examination of the mediastinum |
| sigmoidoscopy | Visual examination of the sigmoid colon (the lower, S-shaped part of the large intestine) |
*For images of these procedures, visit the Evolve companion website.
Table 4-3
MAJOR ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND SELECTED HORMONES
| gland | Hormones |
| adrenal glands | Adrenaline (epinephrine) |
| ovaries | Estrogen Progesterone |
| pancreas | Insulin |
| parathyroid glands | Parathyroid hormone (PTH) |
| pituitary gland | Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Growth hormone (GH) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) |
| testes | Testosterone |
| thyroid gland | Thyroxine (T4) |
| epi- | above, upon | epidural hematoma ____________________ |
| Figure 4-4 illustrates epidural and subdural hematomas. | ||
| epidermis ____________________ | ||
| The three layers of the skin, from outermost to innermost, are the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous layer. Check Appendix I. | ||
| ex- | out | excision ____________________ |
| extra- | outside of | extrahepatic ____________________ |
| hemi- | half | hemigastrectomy ____________________ |
| hemiplegia ____________________ | ||
| One side of the body is paralyzed; usually caused by a cerebrovascular accident or brain lesion, such as a tumor. The resulting paralysis occurs on the side opposite the brain disorder. | ||
| hyper- | excessive, too much, above | hyperthyroidism ____________________ |
| Figure 4-5 shows the position of the thyroid gland in the neck. | ||
| hypertrophy ____________________ | ||
| Cells increase in size, not in number. The opposite of hypertrophy is atrophy (cells shrink in size). | ||
| hypertension ____________________ | ||
| Risk factors that contribute to high blood pressure are increasing age, smoking, obesity, heredity, and a stressful lifestyle. | ||
| hyperglycemia ____________________ | ||
| May also be a sign of diabetes mellitus. Insulin either is not secreted or is improperly utilized so that sugar accumulates in the bloodstream and spills over into the urine (glycosuria). | ||
| hypo- | defcient, too little, below | hypoglycemia ____________________ |
| Overproduction of insulin or an overdose (from outside the body—exogenously) of insulin can lead to hypoglycemia, as glucose is removed from the blood at an increased rate. | ||
| in- | in, into | incision ____________________ |
| inter- | between | intervertebral ____________________ |
| An intervertebral disk lies between any two vertebrae. | ||
| intra- | within | intrauterine ____________________ |
| intravenous ____________________ | ||
| The abbreviation for intravenous is IV. See Figure 4-6. | ||
| mal- | bad | malignant  ____________________ |
| meta- | change, beyond | metastasis ____________________ |
| This term literally means a “change of place” (-STASIS). It is the spread of a cancerous tumor from its original place to a secondary location in the body. | ||
| metacarpals ____________________ | ||
| The carpal bones are the wrist bones, and the metacarpals are the hand bones, which are beyond the wrist. See the x-ray image of the hand in Figure 4-7. | ||
| neo- | new | neoplasm ____________________ |
| neoplastic ____________________ | ||
| neonatal ____________________ | ||
| Neonates who are born prematurely are often cared for in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) D. See Figure 4-8. | ||
| para- | beside, near, along the side of | parathyroid glands ____________________ |
| Figure 4-9 shows the position of the parathyroid glands on the back side of the thyroid gland. The parathyroid glands are endocrine glands that regulate the amount of calcium in bones and in the blood. | ||
| paralysis ____________________ | ||
| This term came from the Greek paralytikos, meaning “one whose side was loose or weak,” as after a stroke. Now it means a loss of movement in any part of the body caused by a break in the connection between nerve and muscle. |
Malignant versus benignThe root IGN comes from the Latin ignis, meaning “fire.” A malignant tumor is a cancerous growth that spreads like a “wild fire” from its original location to other organs. A benign tumor (BEN- means “good”) is a noncancerous growth that does not spread.
Intensive care unitsNote the pronunciations and meanings of other hospital intensive care units:
| MICU (MIK-u) | medical intensive care unit |
| MSICU (M-SIK-u) | medical/surgical intensive care unit |
| PICU (PIK-u) | pediatric or psychiatric intensive care unit |
| SICU (SIK-u) | surgical intensive care unit |
paralysis ____________________________________
This term came from the Greek paralytikos, meaning “one whose side was loose or weak,” as after a stroke. Now it means a loss of movement in any part of the body caused by a break in the connection between nerve and muscle.
| paraplegia ____________________ | ||
| -PLEGIA means paralysis, and this term originally meant paralysis of any limb or side of the body. Since the nineteenth century, however, it has indicated paralysis of the lower half of the body. | ||
| peri- | surrounding | periosteum ____________________ |
| perianal ____________________ | ||
| poly- | many, much | polyuria  ____________________ |
| polyneuropathy ____________________ | ||
| polydipsia ____________________ | ||
| Symptoms of diabetes mellitus are polyuria and polydipsia. | ||
| post- | after, behind | postpartum ____________________ |
| postmortem ____________________ | ||
| pre- | before | precancerous ____________________ |
| An example of a precancerous lesion is polyps (benign growths), commonly found in the colon. These neoplasms are often removed via colonoscopy, because they may eventually become malignant. | ||
| prenatal ____________________ |
Polyuria and diureticsDiuretics (DI- from DIA-, meaning “complete”) are drugs that promote an abnormally large quantity of urine (polyuria). They are used in the treatment of hypertension to lower blood pressure by removing excess fluid from the body.
| pro- | before, forward | prolapse ____________________ |
| -LAPSE means to slide. Figure 4-10 shows both the normal position of the uterus and its position when prolapsed. | ||
| pros- | before, forward | prosthesis ____________________ |
| An artifcial limb is a prosthesis (literally meaning “placed” or “put”). Figure 4-11 shows Amy Palmiero-Winters running with a prosthetic leg. Figure 4-12 shows a total hip replacement and a total knee joint replacement. |
| quadri- | four | quadriplegia ____________________ |
| Paralysis of all four limbs. | ||
| re- | back, behind | relapse ____________________ |
| Symptoms of disease return when a patient has a relapse. Exacerbation is an increase in the severity of a disease or any of its symptoms. | ||
| remission ____________________ | ||
| Symptoms of disease lessen when the disease goes into remission. | ||
| resection ____________________ | ||
| retro- | back, behind | retroperitoneal ____________________ |
| The kidneys and adrenal glands are retroperitoneal organs. (See Figure 2-4 on page 52.) | ||
| sub- | under, less than | subcostal ____________________ |
| subcutaneous ____________________ | ||
| subtotal ____________________ | ||
| A subtotal gastrectomy is a partial resection of the stomach. | ||
| subscapular ____________________ | ||
| The scapula is the shoulder bone. Figure 4-13 shows its location. | ||
| syn- | with, together | syndrome ____________________ |
| -DROME means running or occurring. Syndromes are groups of symptoms or signs of illness that occur together. Table 4-4 gives examples of syndromes. | ||
| tachy- | fast | tachycardia ____________________ |
| tachypnea ____________________ |
Table 4-4
| Syndrome | Signs and Symptoms |
| acquired immunodefciency syndrome (AIDS) | Severe infections, malignancy (Kaposi sarcoma and lymphoma), fever, malaise (discomfort), and gastrointestinal disturbances. It is caused by a virus that damages lymphocytes (white blood cells). |
| carpal tunnel syndrome | Pain, tingling, burning, and numbness of the hand and wrist. A nerve leading to the hand is compressed by connective tissue fibers in the wrist. |
| Down syndrome | Mental retardation, fat face with a short nose, slanted eyes, broad hands and feet, stubby fingers, and protruding lower lip. The syndrome occurs when an extra chromosome is present in each cell of the body. |
| mitral valve prolapse syndrome | Abnormal sounds (murmurs) heard through a stethoscope placed on the chest. These murmurs indicate that the mitral valve is not closing properly. Chest pain, dyspnea (diffcult breathing), and fatigue are other symptoms. |
| toxic shock syndrome | High fever, vomiting, diarrhea, rash, hypotension (low blood pressure), and shock. It typically is caused by a bacterial infection in the vagina of menstruating women using superabsorbent tampons. |
*See the Evolve website for additional information about syndromes (http://evolve.elsevier.com/Chabner/medtermshort).
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