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Noninvasive procedures
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Seizurogenic
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Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
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Magnetic seizure therapy (MST)
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Focal electrically administered seizure therapy (FEAST)
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Nonseizurogenic
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Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
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Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)
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-
-
Invasive procedures
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Nonseizurogenic
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Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS)
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Deep brain stimulation (DBS)
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![]() Figure 8-1 The role of therapeutic neuromodulation in the treatment of psychiatric disorders. (Adapted from Dowd SM, Janicak PG. How effective and safe is rTMS? Current Psychiatry. 2003;2:59-66.) |
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Neurotransmitters effects
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Neuroendocrine effects
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Neurophysiological effects
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Neurotrophic effects
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The use of brain tissue in animals versus peripheral tissues in humans, as well as the differential effects of ECS in animals versus ECT in humans, respectively
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A predominance of NE β1-receptors in the CNS and of NE β2-receptors in peripheral tissues
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Findings of receptor activity differences in normal young animals, with their own speciesspecific biochemistry and physiology, which cannot be easily generalized to baseline and posttreatment differences in normal humans or depressed patients
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Increasing the seizure threshold (ST)
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Decreasing the overall duration of an episode
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Decreasing neurometabolic response to an episode
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Decreasing the phenomenon of amygdaloid kindling
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Enhanced GABA-ergic transmission
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Decreased cerebral blood flow and cerebral metabolic rate (CMR)
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Alteration in neuroplasticity
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Neurotrophic effects
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Neurogenesis
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Those who are at high risk for suicidal behavior (27)
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Those who are rapidly deteriorating, either physically or psychologically, or both
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Those who have a prior history of good response to ECT or a poor history of response to pharmacotherapy
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Mania (especially manic delirium)
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Schizophrenia
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Catatonia associated with major mood disorders, schizophrenia, or organic mood disorders (e.g., systemic lupus erythematosus) (65)
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Certain medical disorders
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Intractable seizures
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Parkinson disease
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Hypopituitarism
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Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS)
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Space-occupying supratentorial cerebral lesions
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A recent history of myocardial infarction and associated instability (<3 months)
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Recent intracerebral bleeds
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Bleeding or unstable aneurysm or arteriovenous malformations
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Retinal detachment
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Pheochromocytoma
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American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) classification risk level of 4 or 5
TABLE 8-1 EFFICACY OF REAL ECT IN COMPARISON WITH SIMULATED ECT | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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TABLE 8-2 EFFICACY OF ECT IN COMPARISON WITH PLACEBO | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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TABLE 8-3 EFFICACY OF ECT IN COMPARISON WITH TCAs | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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TABLE 8-4 EFFICACY OF ECT IN COMPARISON WITH MAOIs | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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TABLE 8-5 EFFICACY OF BILATERAL ECT IN COMPARISON WITH UNILATERAL NONDOMINANT ECT | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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TABLE 8-6 STATISTICAL OVERVIEW OF STUDIES COMPARING UNILATERAL NONDOMINANT ECT WITH BILATERAL ECT | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Antidepressants that have demonstrated at least partial benefit in the past
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Lithium or lithium-antidepressant combinations, both in bipolar and unipolar disorders
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Combined antidepressant plus antipsychotic (e.g., olanzapine plus fluoxetine for bipolar depression)
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Second-generation antipsychotic monotherapy (e.g., quetiapine)
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Anticonvulsants, such as lamotrigine, VPA, or CBZ, with or without other mood stabilizers
-
Maintenance ECT, possibly combined with a mood stabilizer, antidepressant, or antipsychotic
-
Possibly VNS or TMS
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Raising gastric pH before the procedure with a nonparticulate antacid such as sodium citrate because gastric emptying is prolonged in pregnancy
-
Intubating after the first trimester with a small cuffed endotracheal tube and using a small laryngoscope and a laryngoscope blade to reduce the risk of bleeding from attempted intubation
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Pretreating with intravenous hydration without glucose to avoid osmotic diuresis
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Avoiding hyperventilation because this may hinder oxygen unloading from maternal to fetal hemoglobin
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63% for depression
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80% for mania
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42% for schizophrenia
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80% for catatonia
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Advances in anesthetic techniques
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Selected stimulus electrode placement (e.g., high-energy UND vs. BILAT)
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Change from sinusoidal to brief-pulse or ultrabrief-pulse inducing currents
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A better understanding of the role played by the electrical stimulus itself and the degree to which the ST is surpassed
-
Improved assessment for the adequacy of seizure activity
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A complete physical and neurological examination
-
Routine hematological indices (e.g., complete blood count) and serum electrolytes
-
Review of cardiac status and electrocardiogram
-
Simple tests of cognitive function (e.g., MMSE)
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Anticholinergic agents (e.g., atropine or glycopyrrolate)
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Anesthetic agents (e.g., propofol, etomidate)
-
Muscle relaxants (e.g., succinylcholine)
-
β-Blockers (when indicated) to control blood pressure and heart rate changes (e.g., esmolol or labetalol) (128)
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Delayed cognitive recovery
-
Suppression of adrenocortical function for 8 hours
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Pain on infusion (132)
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Increased recovery time
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Induction of seizures in epileptic patients
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