Strategic Response to Explosive and Traumatic Terrorism
Brian A. Krakover
INTRODUCTION
Although the United States has been spared the frequent terrorist attacks experienced by Israel, the United Kingdom, Malaysia, and other countries, the 2001 World Trade Center attack and the Murrah Federal Building bombing in Oklahoma City adequately demonstrated that the United States is not immune (1). This chapter reviews trends in terrorist bombing tactics and a system of preparing and dealing with explosive terrorism in accordance with the all-hazards approach to established disaster management. After reading this chapter, the reader should feel comfortable planning for and responding to bomb detonations, major explosive calamities, and the resulting mass casualty situations.
PREPAREDNESS ESSENTIALS
The major medical challenge posed by explosive terrorist acts is that they frequently generate a multiple-casualty situation. Even though nuclear, biological, and/or chemical weapons have received a great deal of attention over the last decade, conventional explosives have been, by far, the most common type of weapon employed in terrorist attacks in modern history (2). In the past, this usually occurred during wars or other military operations. More recently however, more ambitious terrorists have brought more critically injured patients to the civilian medical setting. The civilian medical establishment in most countries is not geared toward managing multiple casualties on a daily basis. Moreover, responders are often not acquainted with the different guidelines that should be followed in this type of situation. The problem is to identify the number of casualties who are in critical but salvageable condition in the field and upon arrival to the hospital. Such individuals are usually mixed in with a large number of minimal casualties presenting to all available medical facilities and creating a significant triage and management problem (3)
TARGETS OF TERRORISM
Public places with little or no security presence are easy targets. Examples are religious sites, dance clubs, shops or markets, and public transport, especially during the
rush hour. Between 2000 and 2003 there have been scores of bombings in Israeli markets, night clubs, and restaurants. Strictly ethnic or religious targets are also common. The August 2003 bombing of the Imam Ali Mosque in Najaf, Iraq, killed scores including a major religious leader (4). Earlier in April 2002 the oldest synagogue in North Africa was attacked by suicide bombing, killing 19 people (5). (Fig. 35-1) presents a breakdown of terrorist attacks in 2001. Note the disproportionate number of bombings and armed assaults compared to all other tactics (6).
rush hour. Between 2000 and 2003 there have been scores of bombings in Israeli markets, night clubs, and restaurants. Strictly ethnic or religious targets are also common. The August 2003 bombing of the Imam Ali Mosque in Najaf, Iraq, killed scores including a major religious leader (4). Earlier in April 2002 the oldest synagogue in North Africa was attacked by suicide bombing, killing 19 people (5). (Fig. 35-1) presents a breakdown of terrorist attacks in 2001. Note the disproportionate number of bombings and armed assaults compared to all other tactics (6).
BOMB BASICS
Blast injuries are usually caused by explosive devices such as bombs, mines, or missiles. They function by the burning of certain fuels. The combustion process happens so rapidly that the gases produced by the combustion are pushed outward at tremendous speed and in such a violent manner so as to produce a shock wave. This shock wave propagates at the speed of sound in all directions (7). The combination of this shock wave as well as the thermal products of the explosion in conjunction with their effects on
structures and personnel makes explosions ideal terror weapons.
structures and personnel makes explosions ideal terror weapons.
 Figure 35-1. Total International attacks 2001. Source: U.S. State Department, Washington, DC. 2001patterns of global terrorism. 2001. |
Military explosives are divided into two general classes, high explosives and low explosives, according to their rate of decomposition.
HIGH EXPLOSIVES
A high explosive is characterized by the extreme rapidity with which its decomposition occurs; this action is known as detonation. When initiated by a blow or shock, it will decompose almost instantaneously in a manner similar to an extremely rapid combustion or with rupture and rearrangement of the molecules themselves. In either case, gaseous and solid products of reaction are produced and generate an overpressurization wave. High explosives are usually nitration products of organic substances, such as toluene, phenol, pentaerythritol, arnines, glycerin, and starch, and may be nitrogen-containing inorganic substances or mixtures of both. TNT is an example of a high explosive (Table 35-1).
TABLE 35-1 Composite High Explosives | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
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LOW EXPLOSIVES
Low explosives are mostly solid combustible materials that decompose rapidly but do not normally detonate or produce significant overpressures. This action is known as deflagration. Upon ignition and decomposition, low explosives develop a large volume of gases that produce enough pressure to propel a projectile in a definite direction. The rate of burning is an important characteristic that depends upon such factors as combustion gas pressure, grain size and form, and composition. Under certain conditions, low explosives may be made to detonate in the same manner as high explosives.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPLOSIVES
The closer the victim or structure is to the site of an explosion, the stronger the shock wave. The term “blast overpressure” is used to describe the power of a shock wave. Commercial explosives can produce tremendous peak overpressures on the order of thousands of pounds per square inch, but this lasts only milliseconds and dissipates rapidly over distance. Water extends the lethal radius of explosives due to its increased density compared to air (7). Several other factors influence the effects of an explosive reaction (Table 35-2).
Velocity
An explosive reaction differs from ordinary combustion in the velocity of the reaction. The velocity of combustion of explosives may vary within rather wide limits, depending upon the kind of explosive substance and upon its physical state. For high explosives, the velocity, or time of reaction, is high (usually in feet per second), as opposed to low explosives, where the velocity is low (usually in seconds per foot).
Heat
An explosive reaction of a high explosive and a low explosive is always accompanied by the rapid liberation of heat. The amount of heat represents the energy of the explosive and its potential for doing work.
Gases
The principal gaseous products of the more common explosives are carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water vapor, nitrogen, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen, methane, and hydrogen cyanide. Some of these gases are suffocating, some are actively poisonous, and some are combustible. For example, the flame at the muzzle of a gun when it is fired results from the burning of these gases in air.
Pressure
The high pressure accompanying an explosive reaction is due to the formation of gases that are expanded by the heat liberated in the reaction. The work that the reaction is capable of performing depends upon the volume of the gases and the amount of heat liberated. The maximum pressure developed and the way in which the energy of the explosion is applied depends further upon the velocity of the reaction. The rapidity with which an explosive develops its maximum pressure is a measure of the quality known as brisance. A brisant explosive is one in which the maximum pressure is attained so rapidly that a shock wave is formed, and the net effect is to shatter material surrounding or in contact with it. Thus brisance is a measure of the shattering ability of an explosive.
Stability
The stability of an explosive is important in determining the length of time it can be kept under normal stowage conditions without deterioration and its adaptability to various military uses. A good, general explosive should withstand a reasonable exposure to such extremes as high humidity in a hot climate or cold temperatures of arctic conditions (8).
The number of potential materials available to the committed terrorist is impressive. Materials ranging from stolen military-grade explosives to gasoline drums to household fertilizer can be incorporated into an explosive device capable of devastating any modern structure. Most military-style munitions such as bombs and missiles are too cumbersome to be employed as a single unit. The exception to this generalization is the mine—both the anti-personnel and antitank mine. Mines can be adapted without much difficulty with average engineering experience. Some 300 different types of mines are buried under the soil, killing tens of thousands every year.
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